DISTRIBUTION - the supply of media products to audiences
Distribution essentially refers to how a media product gets into your hands... or your hard drive. For the music industry, there is a distinction between traditional formats, such as vinyl records, cassettes and CDs, and those formats that come under the umbrella of 'new media', for example digital downloads. Traditional methods of distribution for both major and independent record labels consists of securing contracts to sell a certain amount of CDs or LPs to either a physical or web based store. This can either be done directly, or through a specialist distributor. Distribution takes on an entirely different approach when done digitally. In this instance, albums or singles can be sold directly from the company or artist’s website. More often though, this task is designated to a specialist online reseller, such as iTunes. On an independent level, artists can use hosting/streaming sites such as Soundcloud, Bandcamp and Myspace (!)
MARKETING - the process of preparing a media product for sale in a market
Selling an album is not as straightforward as putting it on iTunes and waiting for the money to role in. Advertising, identifying audiences, and the associated strategies involved with this all play a major part. Traditional methods of marketing may involve posters, magazines and newspaper campaigns. More recent developments in digital technology allow media organisations to directly market music to audiences, for example using social media. Kanye West's marketing of not only his music, but his celebrity on Twitter can only be described as aggressive...
CONVERGENCE - the 'coming together' of two previously separate industries
One of the biggest benefits of digital technologies (see below) is that previously separate media industries can now be 'combined'. 'Old media' can be characterised as being separate. You go to a cinema to watch a film. You buy a record to listen to music. You switch on the TV to watch a TV programme, and you have completely different expectations of what each experience will be. Digital technology has now blurred these lines. We can from a laptop computer access film, television, music, fiction, academic texts, and so on. Crucially, we can use this same laptop to make films and music. The fact that all of these functions can be completed through one device is an excellent example of media convergence.
SYNERGY - the benefits of two media combining, for example a music video (film and music)
Synergy refers to two or more things working in perfect harmony. Some media industries work particularly well together. Music videos are a great example. Another example of synergy is tie-in products, such as videogames. In short, synergy refers to the benefits of convergence.
CONGLOMERATION - The coming together of two or more corporations, for example Sony BMG
As with media products, media corporations are also subject to this 'coming together'. This is most often demonstrated through acquisitions, where one corporation buys a company, and mergers, where a company combines with another one to create a larger company. The music industry is particularly characterised by conglomeration. Over time the number of record labels has steadily decreased as they acquire and merge with one another, meaning that there are currently only three major music labels, each of which own a ridiculous amount of intellectual properties.
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES - digital, as opposed to analogue technology, for example digital television, mobile phones, computers and the internet
Digital technologies can be difficult to define, insofar as most technologies now are in some ways digital. Without wishing to get into too much detail, digital technologies are superior to traditional analogue technologies as far more information can be transferred far more quickly and efficiently. For example, using analogue TV signals, it was a struggle to even broadcast five TV channels in the UK. With digital technology, it has comparatively recently been possible to broadcast 100's of channels. Digital technologies can include anything involving the internet, mobile phones, computers, and any number of widely used devices.
THE INTERNET - a method of connecting computer networks
The internet possibly needs no introduction. It has revolutionised how information can efficiently be distributed and shared between audiences around the world. The internet has matured greatly in the last 20 years. Previously only comparatively small files could be exchanged, but the introduction of broadband has allowed effective and efficient streaming of data, essentially allowing video and audio streaming services such as Youtube and Spotify respectively.
STARS AND CELEBRITIES - a 'glamourous, notorious' or otherwise exceptional individual within the public sphere
Not every musical artist is a 'star'. It is very possible to be an extremely talented and respected musician , yet remain completely unknown to the vast majority of people. A star, therefore, requires a certain quality that helps them to stick out, be it a particularly over-the-top personality, fashion sense, or being associated with charitable work. Celebrity is perhaps one of the most important aspects to the success of major pop stars, arguably more so than distribution or even the music itself. Celebrity gives audiences a distinct personality to identify with, which helps their appreciation and affinity to the music itself. For example, Lady Gaga's fans call themselves 'little monsters', and emulate their hero's fashion sense by dressing up in DIY versions of her own iconic costumes. This is a particularly good example of how the uses and gratifications model can be taken beyond the usual 'information/entertainment' conclusion.
REGULATION - the rules and restrictions a media organisation must follow
Many industries have to follow strict rules and regulations. The British film industry is a good example of this. Every film released in the UK must receive an age certificate, accredited by the British Board of Film Certification (the BBFC). Each age certificate has strict boundaries. A very thorough description of what you can and cannot say or do in each certification bracket can be found here. Without an age certificate, a film cannot be legally exhibited (unless it is shown out of certificate, which often involves obtaining a licence, or screened informally, which is why schools can legally show 18 rated films to slightly younger Media students!), and it cannot be legally released on DVD (unless it is deemed to be of a purely educational context). Age certification is constantly argued over, and older films are often re-rated at a later date, depending on what contemporary society deems offensive or harmful.
Confused? It's understandable. The music industry, on the other hand is subject to almost no regulation. It is instead largely self regulated. The 'parental advisory' sticker is not at all legally binding. Music might be edited by radio or TV stations for content or length (often called a 'radio edit'), but this is up to the discretion of the broadcaster, and again is not legally binding. One regulation that the music industry DOES uphold is copyright law. This is the law you are breaking if you illegally torrent a new album. You have not stolen a physical product, but the intellectual property of the record label and the artist.
MUSIC PRODUCTION - the ways in which music is made
Traditionally, music was performed live. Throughout much of the 20th Century, music was recorded to analogue tape. Advances in technology allowed artists to record and record certain parts, essentially making for a 'flawless' performance'. Now the vast majority of production is completed digitally, allowing for much faster, easier, and arguably high quality production. Both Kanye West and Lady Gaga's music evidences 'high production values', and this contributes a great deal to their success. It is a key audience pleasure to listen to a quality product. Some people however favour a more lo-fi production, feeling it makes the music more authentic.
Look out for a future post detailing what words exactly you should use when discussing music production.
GLOBAL ISSUES - the issues that arise when a media text from one country is consumed by audiences from another country or culture
In the UK, the video to Lady Gaga's single Judas might come across as a little over the top, but it is unlikely to offend a sizable portion of the population. However, we cannot make this assumption about the entire world. The video, with it's heavy use of religious symbolism risks offending the more religiously conservative US, and this potentially for offense is even more so in predominantly Roman Catholic countries like Mexico and The Philippines. Predictably several catholic groups were offended by it. However, it could be argued that the publicity this backlash gave the song only increased its marketability. Global implications do not have to be related to controversy. Different countries tend to favour different genres and styles of production. For example, the harsh processed production and extremely chirpy nature of Japanese pop music means that very few Japanese artists achieve popularity outside of Japan and a few other Asian countries.
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM - the imposition of one country's norms and values on to another country
Cultural imperialism is essentially the reason why American music (and film and TV) is so popular in the UK. Marxist scholars would argue that this is another example of hegemony. While we are not forced to listen to American music, the fact its popularity means we are likely to listen to it every day. Additionally, American style production values, songwriting techniques and vocal stylings are consequently influential enough to influence British artists. Think how many British artists sing with an American accent. Now consider how many American artists sing with a British accent. If we think about it like this, it is almost like the US has conquered the UK, not with guns and bombs, but with culture!
Definitions for this post are adapted from Dictionary of Media Studies (Penguin, 2007) and The Media Studies Book (Routledge, 2006)