Possible arguments for each industry

Humans and audience - Humans primarily targets a niche audience of pre-existing science fiction fans, but it also targets a range of secondary audiences of more general demographics 

• Excellent example: opening shot of ECU of eye is an intertextual reference to Blade Runner, and will appeal to hardcore sci-fi fans
• Another example: the confusing advertising campaign blended fact and fiction, which will appeal to hardcore fans of science fiction

Les Revenants and representation - Les Revenants uses highly atypical representations to confuse and challenge the target audience

• "representation is a reconstruction of reality made by the producer to convey their ideology'
• Possible representations: historical context, gender, location, stereotypes, men, women, children

Magazines, media language - "Woman magazine uses media language in a simple, straightforward sexist way to appeal to a huge target audience, while Adbusters uses media language in an anti-capitalist, atypical and confusing way to manipulate the political ideology of it's niche target audience

• Woman: straightforward and very sexist to reinforce dominant hegemonic patriarchal ideologies
• Adbusters: ant capitalism, radical, criticises commodity fetishism, anti advert, lacks anchorage, polysemy, not for profit

Online media, media industry - Zoella and Attitude are both simple and straightforward products that use every opportunity to minimise risk and maximise profit

• Regulation
• Digital technologies
• Hypermodality

Revision: regulation of online media

Sonia Livingstone and Peter Lunt argue that because the internet is largely self regulated, it devolves regulatory decisions to the producers as opposed to a separate regulator, which can be problematic. Evaluate this theory of regulation. Make reference to Zoe Sugg/Zoella and Attitude Online

This article in The Sun makes reference to one of the few times that online regulations are actually enforced. In this case the ASA (Advertising Standards Agency) intervened after Zoe Sugg advertised ASOS clothing on her Instagram feed without indicating this was paid for content. This breaches UK regulatory guidelines, but in other countries, different laws exist, which makes the regulation of online media a 'patchwork' system of regulations. In this instance, Sugg and ASOS were only 'warned', not prosecuted. So, arguably, the regulation of online media is EXTREMELY ineffective, as even when regulatory bodies intervene, they chose to do nothing substantial

Regulation refers to the rules and guidelines that media products must follow. While many industries have strict regulation, for example the film industry, the online media industries are largely self-regulated. The internet is arguably impossible to regulate, as it is truly world wide, and is subject to a variety of different laws around the world. However, while the internet offers users apparent freedom from restrictions, it is owned by a small number of huge conglomerates like Google, Disney and Amazon. Therefore, while the internet technically lacks restrictions, users must comply with strict regulations in order to minimise risk and to maximise profit. In order to make this argument, I shall explore the examples of Zoella/Zoe Sugg, a lifestyle vlogger who started as a YouTube personality before diversifying to write books and maintains a blog, and Attitude Online, a website targeting a working class British gay audience. 

One of Zoella's greatest economic advantages is that she appeals to a large, dedicated target audience who are often overlooked by advertisers and media producers. Her success is built on a number of very specific factors, and allows her to appeal to a specific target audience. 

• 'A very homey weekend' begins with an establishing montage of CU shots positions the young female target audience in the artist's home, and provides them with voyeuristic pleasure. 
• Pale pastel colours connote girlishness and innocence
• MES of wet hair relatable to a young female target audience
• This approachable, gentle mode of address is constructed in such a way to appeal to the largest possible proportion of her target demographic. 
• By presenting a straightforward and agreeable ideology to her target audience, Zoe Sugg does not challenge any possible regulatory guideline that YouTube might have, and therefore minimises risk and maximises profit

While Zoella presents a safe and accessible image to her fans, at times she can also be faintly controversial. For example, through the social media app Instagram, Sugg advertised products for ASOS without explicitly disclosing she was doing so. By not disclosing to the target audience that this was a paid for ad, ASOS took advantage of Zoella's celebrity and her huge pre-existing fan base. However, the ASA simply gave Sugg and ASOS a warning, and requested that they not do this again.  In this sense we can see the regulation of online media s completely ineffective. 

Additionally, Zoella has also caused mild controversy through a blog post about sex toys and female masturbation. While the content of this post proved offensive to a small portion of audiences, this was mainly due to the perception that Zoella targeted a much younger female audience. However, she is breaking absolutely  no regulatory guidelines in posting articles about sex toys and masturbation. Even the articles on her website dealing with sex and health take a feminine mode of address through the web 2.0 layout and the use of soft, feminine colours. By appealing to an older, sexually active target audience, Sugg is addressing the fact that her audience have grown up. However, she does not include explicit imagery of concepts, and therefore has no issue with regulatory guidelines. This allows her to minimise risk and to maximise profit

In the article '26 Small & Curated Ear Piercings to Bookmark This Summer' , Sugg assumes the target audience will know about 'bookmarking' on Instagram. Articles such as this reinforce stereotypes and expectations of young women, namely that they wear jewellery and makeup. This article lacks any reference to subversive ideologies or any reference to politics, which allows Zoella to appeal to as large an audience as possible. 

Revision: online media and digitally convergent technology

Explore the ways in which newly emergent digitally convergent technologies have shaped the online media industries. Make reference to Zoella/Zoe Sugg and Attitude Online to explore your reasoning

Knee jerk reaction 

Yes!!! Industries and producers extensively use DCT to shape media products to make money and profit

Plan

Cultural industries

Self regulation

PNO readings

Postmodernism

Hesmondhalgh

Gauntlet - pick and mix

Hyperdermic needle???

Vertical and horizontal integration

Independent 

Industry control

Conglomerate

Web 2.0 

Multimedia integration 

Hypermodality

Livingstone and Lunt - regulation

Stereotypes

Audience interaction

Digital

Curran and Seaton: power

Introduction 

Digitally convergent technologies (DCT from now on) refer to the synergistic coming together of two previously separate industries thanks to modern, digital technologies. The online media industries are specialised industries, and digital technologies have allowed them to target audiences in more effective ways. In this essay, I shall argue that industries and producers extensively use and abuse DCT in order to minimise risk and maximise profit. In order to explore this idea, I shall look at Zoella, an online influencer and blogger (and author) who especially appeals to young, middle class female audiences, and Attitude Online, an online gay interest lifestyle magazine that targets young, working class gay British men.

Content

• Both websites use a standard web 2.0 layout - simple and basic
• Extensive use of clickbait adverts is a guaranteed way of using DCT to make money
• Online interaction: signing up for a newsletter or commenting on Facebook articles allows audience interaction
• Hypermodality: links to social media which allows fans opportunities to engage
• Streamlined purchases: digital shop Zoella: links to her apps and books and other junk
• Both of these websites use DCT to manipulate their simple and straightforward target audiences

Revision: online media and the cultural industries

David Hesmondhalgh has argued that while the internet initially had radical and transformative potential, this has largely been squandered by the involvement of vast corporations motivated by power and profit. Critically evaluate this theory related to the cultural industries. Make reference to Zoella/Zoe Sugg and Attitude Online to back up your argument

While Attitude Online should be commended for appealing to gay audiences, it arguably does so by presenting straightforward stereotypes. What should be a radical, exciting and challenging online magazine ends up being just as sexist as the edition of Woman we studied from 1964! Why? Hesmondhalgh would argue that corporate, profit based ownership leads to more straightforward boring products!

Knee jerk reaction

Yes! Hesmondhalgh's argument that online media's potential hasn't been realised due to large corporations favouring power and profit over art and culture. The products we have studied are solely motivated by power and profit.

The internet holds many advantages which can potentially lead to a perfect, utopian society

• The potential to easily store all human knowledge 
• Creating a new persona and identity 
• Novel ways of making money and distributing products in an ethical and environmentally responsible way
• News and information can be instantly shared 
• Revolution and social change
• A completely inclusive and universal structure 
• Voices for marginalised groups, such as LGBTQ+ and fans of obscure media like science fiction and metal music

Plan

Horizontal integration 

Conglomerate 

Companies

Mass audience/target audience

Ideologies

Hyperreality

Niche audience

Regulations

Digital convergence

Advertising

Brand identity 

Profit orientated

Rebranding

Diversification

(Representation)

Vertical integration

Stream (horizontally integrated)

Monopoly

Sponsors

Clickbait

Curran and Seaton/power Seaton

Pick and Mix

Introduction

The internet refers to a large connection of interlinked servers which allow audiences to freely access and share information. There are many platforms that can be linked and driven by digitally convergent technologies, and potentially they can present a unified and exciting set of opportunities. However, these potential advantages have been squandered by vast corporations through mass advertising, clickbait and exploitative tactics. In this exam, I shall argue that vast corporations have corrupted the creativity of the internet and the people who use it, and now most of the internet is solely motivated by profit over art. In order to explore this idea, I shall be looking at the examples of Zoella, an online blogger and influencer who is particularly appealing to teenage female audiences and more recently older female audiences, and Attitude Online, an gay mean's online magazine which is a supplementary product to the print version of Attitude. 

Content

• Attitude Online engages audience with a variety of news articles, but is solely driven by profit and greet. Overwhelming presence of advertising, including banner adverts, wrapper adverts, scrolling adverts and clickbait
• Zoella's website includes a range of hyperlinks to her own online shop and the products it features, including shoes, clothing, books and makeup
• Hypermodality in Zoella's website, linking to a variety of social media platforms, and more opportunities to advertise to her target audience
• Zoella's rebranding to Zoe Sugg is a cynical move to appeal to and manipulate older fans 
• Hypersexualisation of gay men constructs a stereotypical representation which cynically targets a gay audience

REVISION: Regulation and the online media industries

Livingstone and Lunt have argued that it is functionally impossible to regulate the online media industries as long as there exists a conflict between the desire for unrestrained profit and the ethical need to protect those who are most vulnerable. To what extent do you agree with this theory of regulation? Make reference to Zoella/Zoe Sugg and Attitude Online to back up your argument

Knee jerk reaction

To a large extent, it is impossible to regulate online media, because of the conflict between making profit and the need to protect vulnerable people

Plan

Regulation

Self regulation

Producer maximise profit 

End of audience

Reception theory??

Horizontal/vertical integration

Constant change

Target audience 

Rise of convergent digital technology

Ethics and morality

Distribution

Click through/advertising

Economic factors

Hypersexualation

Hypermasculinity

Capitalism!!!

Unrestricted access

Darkweb

Pornography

sexual violence 

Conglomerations

Introduction

Regulation refers to the rules and restrictions that producers must follow in order to not harm or offend audiences. However, regulation of media has become particularly difficult. The amount of media being produced is massive, and digitally convergent technologies have made the availability of online content far more available than ever before. In this exam I shall argue that online media is largely impossible impossible to regulate effectively, as the organisations who regulate it are motivated solely by power and profit. Additionally, the internet is largely self regulated, which allows producers to be influenced by their own ideologies. In order to explore this argument, I shall be looking at Zoella/Zoe Sugg, a social media influencer especially popular with young girls and more recently older women, and Attitude Online, an online gay mens lifestyle magazine. 

Content

• One excellent example of a media producer putting profit over the needs of their audiences is Zoella discussing sexuality and sex toys on her website. For example, her article 'contactless self pleasure' discusses such adult concepts as 'clitoral stimulation', which, while appropriate for her new, older audience, is completely inappropriate to some younger audiences. The over the top and sexually explicit language is deliberately included to challenge an audience to click on the article, which is an example of clickbait, and potentially manipulates the target audience...
• One way in which online media is regulated is through self regulation, where companies and corporations chose what is available to their audiences on their own platform. For example, on Attitude online, the menu bar boasts a 'boys' section, which links to a range of lurid articles focusing exclusively on hyper-sexualised representations of predominantly young, attractive muscular men. Not only do these articles reinforce a potentially negative stereotype about gay men, they also cultivate unrealistic body expectations for the young and vulnerable secondary gay target audience. The sole reason Attitude online does this is to make money in the most straightforward way possible, by presenting sexually alluring images to manipulate their target audience...
• Manipulative clickbait adverts
• Standardised, basic products, much like any other
• However, in order to appeal to their niche yet large audiences, bit Attitude and Zoella present broadly inoffensive ideologies that appeal to the vast majority of their fans. To present explicitly extreme and harmful ideologies would be problematic from a capitalist perspective. 

Attitude: issues with regulation and industry

Who makes, publishes, and distributes Attitude Online?

Attitude is published by Stream media, a horizontally integrated company which specialises in publishing magazines. We are studying Attitude Online, which should be seen as an online, supplementary component to the Attitude brand. Attitude Online is infrequently updated by the publishers, which suggests that this website is not nearly as important as the magazine to their brand and to their success. 

Additionally, Attitude Online and Attitude magazine differ significantly when it comes to a target audience. The magazine clearly targets a middle class target audience. It has less of a focus on gossip, and more of a focus on a sophisticated, high end design with a big focus on high end production values. Attitude magazine often interviews and shoots celebrities, including heterosexual celebrities, such as Prince William, Olympic athletes like Tom Daly, and female musicians such as Lady Gaga. 

Attitude online however clearly targets a working class audience. It utilises an informal lexis, there is a big emphasis on images over text, and there are masses of adverts targeting a generalised audience. The website often features low production values, and the number of adverts can make it confusing to read. In short, Attitude online mainly exists to make money off of click through advertising, and, most of all, to promote the Attitude brand. 

How can David Gauntlet's theories surrounding identity explain how the producers of Attitude Online can maximise revenue?

What regulatory issues does Attitude Online fall foul of (if any), and how could the publication cause harm and offense?

• Many stereotypical assumptions are made about gay men, including an interest in drag, camp culture, theatre, and young buff men. 
• Manipulative, clickbait adverts can potentially be scams which can destroy the lives of vulnerable people
• Articles may deal with issues such as bullying, mental health and suicide
• Highly sexualised images of naked men may make some audiences uncomfortable

What is clickbait, and how does it work?

• Clickbait often uses low resolution, heavily photoshopped images. These images may be intentionally poorly made, and even laughable in order to provoke the audience in to clicking on them. This is an intentionally manipulative technique that also functions as a hermenuetic code, inferring mystery to the audience. 
• Often the images take a creepy and unpleasant aspect, which may cause people scrolling the page to suddenly stop. These grainy, grimy pictures present a voyeuristic mode of address, and entice the audience in to seeing something potentially nasty and out of the ordinary. 
• It is often deliberately confusing to work out what is a clickbait article, and what is just another article on Attitude
• The captions typically take a challenging and direct mode of address, which is again manipulative and potentially harmful to vulnerable audience

Attitude Online clearly obtains revenue through these low-quality, intrusive and manipulative adverts, which demonstrates a certain level of cynicism towards their target audiences. Attitude Online is clearly a commercial product, motivated primarily through the acquisition of power and profit

In what ways does Attitude Online use multimodality and hypermodality in order to appeal to it's audiences?

Hypermodality: where one media product uses digital technology to 'link' to other media products that offer different modes of communication. For example, a text based article may link to other websites, videos and online shops

What opportunities for audience engagement does Attitude Online offer? 

• Attitude Online
• Facebook page
• Twitter page
• Instagram page

Very little opportunities for active audience engagement are offered beyond leaving Facebook comments!

How are audiences constructed? Exploring the construction of the representation of gay men in Attitude Online

Why do media products exist in the first place?

 

The sole reason why any media product exists is to make profit for the producer. The most straightforward and effective way of doing this is to target and to construct audiences. 

Constructing audiences - where a producer effectively 'builds' an audience, by communicating to them exactly who they are and what they are interested in. This allows the producer to communicate an ideology, and guarantees a regular audience

What is the difference between Attitude and Attitude Online?

Attitude Online is a gay men's lifestyle online magazine. It is the online spin-off of the British gay men's lifestyle magazine Attitude. It is essential to point out that we are studying the 'online' sector of Attitude!

Why don't media products typically target gay people as a primary audience??

• Firstly, from a hegemonic perspective, homosexuality is still 'othered' in media and society. Therefore, representations of gay people may not be considered to be hegemonically acceptable by the population at large. Prejudice against gay people still very much exist, and, unfortunately, advertisers are aware of this

Othering: the idea that audiences split the world in to 'us' and 'them'. This helps us (!!!) to make sense of the world

• When gay people are targeted by a media product, they are rarely the primary audience. Gay people make up approximately 2.7-10% of the population

What representations of gay men are constructed in Attitude?

1 - Gay men are represented as camp, and enjoying camp culture

Camp - an exaggerated, over the top and deliberately trashy aesthetic. This style may be associated with gay male culture because of its themes of being extroverted, confident and 'out' 

An article featuring YouTube personality Jojo Siwa is an excellent example of Attitude constructing a camp, over the top and 'out' audience. The article uses overwhelming colourful and trashy mise-en-scene, and represents queer relationships in a positive and uplifting manner

2 - Gay men are represented as proud, strong and fierce

There are many articles that represent gay men as out and proud, including this article promoting a gay pride event in Benidorm. A mid shot of two attractive, muscular men arm in arm, holding a rainbow flag clearly anchors the image with many symbolic connotations of pride, openness, love, sex and freedom for gay men. It is worth noting, however, that this article is produced in partnership with a Spanish tourist board, and the images are provided by them too. Therefore, we must understand that this undeniably positive message serves an explicit capitalist purpose: to encourage gay men to visit Spain. 

3 - Gay men are represented as vulnerable and oppressed

Many articles feature representation of issues such as homophobia, bullying, suicide. These are unfortunately issues that the gay male target audience have had to face to some degree. 

4 - Gay men are represented as hypersexualised and hypermasculine

Hypermasculinity: an exaggerated representation of stereotypical masculinity

In gay subculture, hypermasculine representations are often 'gay coded' to indicate to audiences that a product is targeting gay audiences. Before gay erotica could be legally sold, many bodybuilding and so called 'muscle' magazines secretly targeted a gay audience, while pretending to appeal to heterosexual men as aspirational images. It's very possible that this exaggerated representation stuck, and we still see them today.

The article  5 STUNNING PHOTOS OF THE MALE FORM UNDERWATER BY WILLIAM VERCETTI is a classic example of erotica aimed at a gay male audience. There is a big emphasis on the model's buttocks, which is fairly rare in mainstream sexualised representations of gay men. This is an excellent example 'gay coding', where men are presented as being appealing to gay audiences regardless of their sexuality.

Articles such as this reinforce very strict gay male beauty standard. Potentially this can cultivate and reinforce insecurity in a the gay male audience reading this online magazine

The 'pink pound'

This is advertiser speak for the assumption that LGBT audiences are likely to have more expendable income that non gay audiences. Gay couples are less likely to have children, and are stereotypically more interested in nightlife, events and holiday, which makes gay people appealing to advertisers. 

Why does Attitude online use such stereotypical representations of gay men? Surely this reinforces prejudice?

Remember: representations are used by media producers to present ideological perspectives, but also construct. So Attitude Online presents stereotypical representations not to insult or denigrate, but to celebrate gay culture.

But, more importantly, Attitude Online uses stereotypes as a means of constructing audiences to maximise profit

Ultimately, Attitude Online presents a positive but stereotypical, straightforward and reductive representation of gay men for it's target audience. This is to maximise their revenue by appealing to a more straightforward, working class and less literate target audience than the magazine portion of the Adbusters brand. This is an example of media diversification, and allows Attitude to maximise power and profit. 

Online media 2: Zoella/Zoe Sugg and the regulation of the online media industries

 Unfortunately Michael is absent today! This work is to be competed by Michael's P block and T block A-level media classes. Remember, since you know roughly what's coming up in the final exam, this work is absolutely essential to complete! So answer every question, do all the research, and make sure you talk to Michael if there's anything you didn't find or understand!

Please complete every task, and please, feel free to work with someone else!

By the end of this lesson, you should have AT LEAST 20 bullet points that can go straight in to your exam!

Starter - regulation of online media: case study

Read this article, on how online pornography could be regulated in the UK. All of it please!

After you've finished reading the article, come up with at least five significant issues with this proposed regulation. You may be able to come up with many more.

This case study will be especially useful in the exam, as it underlines how ineffective the regulation of online media is, and how difficult it is to regulate online media!

Mini task : harm and offense 

Read the below and copy it in to your notes on your blog

The internet is largely regulated in a “patchwork of regulation and voluntary initiatives”. This means that, in the UK, the internet is regulated in radically different ways depending on the site, but ultimately, it is up to the distributor of content to voluntarily regulate themselves. Therefore the internet is largely self-regulated. There are a number of reasons for this approach, including the rapid advancement of technology, and the simple fact that much of the internet is hosted in completely different countries with completely different laws and restrictions. You must communicate in the exam about the potential harms and problems the internet may present its users.

From your own knowledge, and with examples if possible, what are five potentially harmful aspects for users of online media?

Main task 1: Zoella/Zoe Sugg and regulation

With all this talk of harm and pornography, it is important to note that Zoella/Zoe Sugg is very different from much content on the internet... However, we must discuss the potential harm and offense that she may provide her target audience. This may be a bit of a reach...

Access the website zoella.co.uk, and click around for a bit. We've discussed how it appeals to it's audiences, but what potential issues of harm and offense are here? Please remember the age of the target audience before jumping to any massive conclusions... MAKE REFERENCE TO FIVE SPECIFIC EXAMPLES

("she talks about sex" is NOT an explicit example. Make reference to media language where appropriate!)

Main task 2: Zoella and regulatory controversies

Harm and offense is not just limited to 'explicit content' and so on. It also refer to deliberately misleading a vulnerable audience.

This next task is best done with a friend, but can be easily done alone!

Find five examples of how Zoella/Zoe Sugg has potentially mislead her audience, or other controversies that may have caused harm, offense or so on. Please make sure these examples are DETAILED, and not just 'she said mean, harmful things'. 

There are quite a few examples out there, but here are a few hints for what you could look for...

• Old tweets
• Offensive comments
• Undisclosed advertising
• Advent calendars

Online media 1: Zoella/Zoe Sugg and industry concerns

Second year students reading this in 2022: the online media question this year will definitely be industry based! This means there's only so many questions that can come up! We cover half of them right here, but remember, the wording will be very different, and the question may ask you to make reference to a theorist (most likely either Hesmondhalgh or Livingstone & Lunt).

So this stuff is REALLY important to know!

Zoella has rebranded herself as Zoe Sugg, and now adopts a far more mature, yet still relatable and approachable mode of address for her new, 18-40 target audience

How is this media product produced, distributed and circulated, and by who?

• Produced directly by Zoella/Zoe Sugg (early in career), and a small team of editors/promotors (especially following rebranding)
• Her videos were initially distributed through YouTube exclusively
• Breezy and excitable mode of address maximises the potential for this video to be shared by fans
• Relatable content: eating pizza, Primark and decorating her baby's room 
• Boyfriend tag video demands audience interaction, providing the opportunity to share the video
• Video has almost 7million views, which demonstrates a significant success
• Sugg represents a vertically integrated and a multimedia integrated industry
• Sugg offers her audiences a multimedia experience through her website, with links to books, apps and her video content, still hosted on YouTube
• Deliberately low production values, with very straightforward editing and jump cuts
• Zoella has used her YouTube empire in order to build a specific brand identity. She has recently diversified, and now targets a significantly different audience

How have recent technological changes in this industry changed production, distribution and circulation?

• Broadband internet has allowed greater capacity for streaming and effective distribution
• Official Russian subtitles allow Sugg to appeal to and to promote to a vast target audience
• Sugg discusses topics such as Primark to appeal to a working class target audience
• Blog uses web 2.0 standard design, with a modern clean interface, with easy to see and identify hyperlinks
• Menu bar has a range of sophisticated topics, such as 
• STYLE
• BEAUTY
• LIFESTYLE
• RECIPES
• BOOKS
• SEX AND HEALTH
• SHOP ZOELLA
• A clear example of hyper-modality 

What economic factors have affected this product? How financially successful was it? Was it made commercially or not for profit?

• YouTube videos can be monetised by producers who have an exceptionally high follower count. At least 1000 subscribers and 4000 watch hours over the last year are essential to actually applying for monetisation 
• Zoe Suggs has significantly diversified her output in order to maximise her profit potential
• Relatability ensures success. The deliberately low production values make Sugg appealing to a younger target audience (for her 'Zoella' YouTube)

Industry key terms

Distribution: the way in which a media product is given out. For online media, we are exclusively talking about digital distribution!

Circulation: how many audience members engage with the digital product, which can be measured through view counts for example

Regulation: the rules media products must follow. Online media is not effectively regulated!

Digital convergence: the coming together of previously separate industries thanks to digital technologies

Conglomeration: where an organisation becomes bigger by buying more companies. Google is an excellent example! 

Vertical integration: where an organisation buys out others in different sectors, meaning they own both distribution and production

Horizontal integration: the same but in the same sector

Multimedia integration: any form of integration which involves digital technologies

Censorship: the practice of removing content for ideological reasons 

Diversification: where a producer branches out in to different sectors/media/etc

Specialisation: where an industry or a producer does one thing particularly well

Monopoly: where one company controls all of a market

Brand identity: where a brand has a specific identity different from any other

Advertorial: an article in a magazine, blog or newspaper, which is paid for by an advertiser. These legally MUST be labelled as adverts!

"the online media industry is a specialised industry"

David Hesmondhalgh - your man for talking about the cultural industries

The following information is cribbed from exam board resources

Hesmondhalgh argues that major cultural organisations create products for different industries in order to maximise chances of commercial success. In relation to online products, he argues that major IT companies now compete with the more traditional media conglomerates within the cultural sector: ‘Microsoft, Google, Apple and Amazon are now as significant as News Corporation, Time Warner and Sony for understanding cultural production and consumption.’

 

The domination of online media by a limited number of tech giants, Google/YouTube/Facebook has arguably hijacked the web’s capacity for audience activism, and, in the process, has arguably asserted a more passive viewing experience. 

A bit of website discussion 

• Aesthetically pleasing layout, neatly organised with a range of hyperlinks to click on
• Enormous banner advert suggests Sugg has aggressively monetised her website
• Clearly, Sugg has been involved in search engine optimisation. Zoella.co.uk is the top result for searches for 'Zoella'
• Blog is regularly updated
• Content has changed dramatically since Sugg started vlogging, and now actively targets a much older audience

What's going on this term in A-level Media Studies?

 

It's a bit late this year because I was on leave, but here's the week-by-week. Click to see full size

This term is a bit weird

It's weird because of covid. One the one hand the various measures we've had to live with are drawing to a close. Yet on the other hand, there are still certain restrictions and considerations we need to follow. 

First years

After (finally) finishing the newspaper industry, we'll be moving on to the magazine industry, which may surprise you with hat issues it raises. We'll be looking at two magazines, a stereotypical woman's lifestyle magazine published in the 1960's, and a recently published anti-capitalist, avant-garde magazine published far more recently. This topic is assessed at a much higher level than anything we've done so far, which means we're going to be going in to more detail regarding concepts such as sexism, racism, climate change, patriarchal hegemony and capitalist hegemony. It's a great opportunity to get argumentative!

Towards the end of the magazine unit, you'll also be producing your own, high end fashion magazine as a class. It's a great opportunity to practice your Photoshop and design skills before we commence the actual coursework.

After the magazine industry has finished, we'll be looking at music videos, with two very different examples of the medium in very different genres. Music videos is an assessed subject that could come up in component one, but it's also what your coursework is going to be based on, so, covid willing, we'll also be running a short practical task at the end of the short unit, where you'll remake the first 30 seconds of an 80's music video we'll give you. It's going to be silly, and it's going to be a great way to free yourself from your inhibitions before you begin planning your music video straight after Easter!

Second years

The radio industry was a very short topic, and frankly very straightforward. The videogame industry is also short, being only two week long, but it's a little more complicated. You'll be looking in particular at the Assassin's Creed franchise, but we'll also be considering videogame experiences in a variety of genres, and, yes, this means we will be playing games!

Straight after that is your final unit: online media, which is possibly the most full on and certainly the most contentious unit you will have done: there's a reason we save it until last! There's loads of stuff to talk about, from body image to hyperreality, and from conspiracy theories to LGBTQ+ representation. We hope you enjoy this one! There is a mock exam, rather inconveniently placed in the penultimate week of the unit, but you can't have everything.

Finally, for the final two weeks of the half term, we'll start revision. This is done fast and concisely. We will focus specifically on essay writing and exam technique. These lessons are a little dry, but they're essential. By Easter, we will have revised advertising, film and newspapers. 

Monday 7th February

On this day, it will be announced what changes (if any!) will be made to the assessment of A-levels, including A-level Media Studies. We do not wish to speculate, but it has been reported that elements of the final exam may be removed. Of course, we will share this information with you guys the second we have the information

Thursday 11th and Friday 12th February

These days are admission days. Next year's students will be interviewed on these days. Do not come in! And don't come in for the whole of the next week, because it's half term. Time moves quickly!

Monday 7th March

The biggest change to the timetable is that second years are having a mock exam week in the week starting 7th March. This will involve taking every student off timetable for a full week to accommodate it. It's far from ideal. The idea behind this is we may need more robust data if exams are cancelled again. But please remember that it is looking increasingly unlikely that exams will be cancelled.

Please let your teacher know if you have any questions, and remember: all this is totally subject to change at any time!

Considering the implications of social media usage

For this three hour long 'collapsed' session, we've decided to do something completely different, and basically skip ahead in terms of course content to discuss the issues and ethics surrounding social media usage.

The theatrical release poster for Te Social Dilemma proairetically encodes many of the themes that are explored in the film itself. It also nicely establishes the central ideology of the film

Starter - Keeping up to date with issues in the media

This is a vital part of the course, and essential for students who wish to get an 'A' in the exam. Luckily, it's simple. Watch loads of films, TV shows, music videos, read loads of newspapers, online media, magazines, play lots of games. Keep up to date with what's going on!

Task: read this story, published in left-leaning broadsheet The Guardian. What issues does this story raise?

Media language as a powerful and manipulative force 

In your A-level media lessons so far, through your analysis of semiotic theory, you have leanred that language is power. When we use the term 'language' in media, we are not simply talking about words, but everything you can find on the textual analysis toolkit. And the use of symbols, images, lexis and so on can not only shape an advertisement, but can also influence and potentially manipulate an audience. As we have seen from our analysis of the Tide advert, such techniques were readily used in the 1950's. Modern, digitally convergent media platforms have allowed producers to disseminate ideologies more effectively that ever before.

Ideology - the system of values and beliefs held by the producer of a media product

Language is power. Language shapes the world around us. And language can be used by those in power to reinforce certain societal hierarchies and to reinforce certain societal ideologies. In short, media can shape what we believe to be right and wrong.

This is clearly pretty scary stuff. So let's watch a scary film and have a chat about it.

Structure

This session shall be split in to two sections:

1 - The Social Dilemma screening
2 - Discussion

Initial discussion

• What genre of film is this? How do you know?
• Who is the target audience for this film? Again, how do you know?
• What is the primary ideological perspective of the film? What messages is it trying to impart to the target audience? What is its agenda?
• The film describes social media as having a "disinformation-for-profit business model". But how do social media platforms actually make money? ("advertising" isn't going to cut it here...)

Why don't we delete our social media accounts?

If social media is so undoubtably and undeniably bad, then why don't we all just delete our accounts? 

• Social interaction
• Can plan responses
• Addiction
• Investment in technology
• FOMO (fear of missing out)
• Anxiety
• Worldwide practical communication
• Supporting indie businesses 
• Exposure for business
• Transport
• News
• Global conversations, and engaging in culture

Textual analysis

Doing textual analysis of a social media platform might seem a bit weird, but frankly, online media uses the same trick and techniques that print adverts do to engage their audiences. You're still new to media, but let's break down exactly how these platforms work!

Open a social media platform, for example Instagram, Twitter, Facebook etc. 

• How does the UI encourage audience engagement? Conduct a full textual analysis of your chosen platform

UI: User interface. How an online platform looks, and how it communicates how to use it

Engagement: primarily used with regards to online media, engagement refers to how and for how long audiences interact with an online platform

You can use the following prompts to help you with your analysis:

• Homepage and other pages
• Codes and conventions
• Layout and design
• Composition
• Font size, type of font (e.g. serif/sans serif), colour 
• Images/photographs - camera shot type, angle, focus
• Mise-en-scene – colour, lighting, location, costume/dress, hair/make-up 
• Graphics, logos
• Language - formal/informal mode of address?
• Anchorage of images and text
• Elements of narrative/structure around the site
• Interactive features
• Menu bar and navigation – structure and design of the site

Your own experiences and opinions

Media studies is an opinionated subject, and in order to hit an 'A' grade, you need to present an opinionated argument. This is very different from other subjects such as sociology, where your answer must be balanced. In media, you will argue that your point is more valid than any other!

The following questions will raise some issues:

• If you push the red button on front of you, all social media platforms will cease to exist. Do you push it? Why?
• What forms of regulation or other measures could be implemented to avoid the issues raised in the film?

Regulation: the rules and restrictions a media organisation must follow. For example, every film released in UK cinemas must be awarded a BBFC age certificate

• What are some issues with the film you watched earlier? How could these issues be rectified?

AS Media Exam May 2019

Remember: AS exams are different to A-level exams! 

AS is a shorter, 1 year version of the course with much of the content removed, and this exam should NOT be seen as indicative of your final exam! However, the kinds of questions that come up are very similar. Simply put, an A-level student should be able to complete an AS paper. So it makes for excellent exam practice! For a bit more information, check out the AS subheading on the 'past papers' section of this blog (click here)

MEDIA STUDIES – AS Component 1
Investigating the Media
1 hour 45 minutes

Answer all questions in both sections.

SECTION A: INVESTIGATING MEDIA LANGUAGE AND REPRESENTATION

• Question 1 is based on the audio-visual resource: a television advertisement for Amazon, released in 2016.
• You will be allowed one minute to read Question 1.
• The advertisement will be shown twice.
• First viewing: watch the advertisement and make notes.
• You will then have five minutes to make further notes.
• Second viewing: watch the advertisement and make final notes.
• Once the second viewing has finished, you should answer Question 1.

Media Language

1) Explore how media language creates meaning in this advertisement. [10]

Representation

Question 2 is based on both of the following:

• the print resource: the front page of The Sun, published on the day of the 2016 ‘Brexit’ referendum

• the set front page of the Daily Mirror you have studied, published on the day after the 2016 US presidential election.

2) Study the print resource carefully and use this newspaper front page and the set newspaper front page you have studied when answering the question. Compare how representations of events are constructed in these two front pages.

In your answer, you must consider:

• how events are represented through selection and combination
• the similarities and differences in the representations of events
• how far the representations relate to political contexts. [25]

SECTION B: INVESTIGATING MEDIA INDUSTRIES AND AUDIENCES

3 (a) Give one example of a global video gaming publisher. [1]

3 (b) Briefly explain two ways in which gaming publishers market their games. [4]

In Question 3(c), you will be rewarded for drawing together knowledge and understanding from across your full course of study, including different areas of the theoretical framework and media contexts.

3 (c) Explain how social and cultural contexts influence video game production. Refer to Assassin’s Creed III: Liberation to support your points. [10]

4 (a) Identify two different audiences for Late Night Woman’s Hour. [2]

4 (b) How might audiences respond differently to radio? Refer to Late Night Woman’s Hour to support your points. [8]

MEDIA STUDIES – AS component 2
Investigating Media Forms and Products
2 hours

Section A: Television

Option 2: Humans

How far might audiences respond differently to representations in the set episode of Humans? Refer to Stuart Hall’s reception theory in your response. [20]

Section B: Magazines

Option 1: Woman

How important are images in communicating meaning in magazines? Explore the front cover and one article from the set edition of Woman in your response. [20]

Section C: Online Media

Option 2: Zoella

(a) Briefly explain the impact of digital technologies on media audiences. Refer to Zoella in your response. [5]

(b) Explain how digital technologies are used in the production and distribution of blogs and vlogs. Refer in detail to Zoella in your response. [15]

A-level exam paper Autumn 2020

 This exam paper was published in Autumn 2020, and was intended for students who wished to sit an exam after the June 2020 papers were cancelled due to the Coronavirus pandemic. 

MEDIA STUDIES – A Level Component 1

Media Products, Industries and Audiences

2 hours 15 minutes

SECTION A: ANALYSING MEDIA LANGUAGE AND REPRESENTATION

Representation

Question 1 is based on both of the following:

 • the audio-visual resource: an extract from the music video, Find Me by Tinie Tempah, ft. Jake Bugg (2017)

 • the set advertisement you have studied: Wateraid

• You will be allowed one minute to read Question 1.
• The music video extract will be shown three times.
• First viewing: watch the music video extract.
• Second viewing: watch the music video extract and make notes.
• You will then have five minutes to make further notes.
• Third viewing: watch the music video extract and make final notes.
• Once the third viewing has finished, you should answer Question 1.

1. Compare how this music video extract and the advertisement for Wateraid represent social groups. [30]

In your answer you must:
• consider the similarities and differences in how social groups are represented
• consider how stereotypes can be used positively and negatively
• make judgements and draw conclusions about how far the representations reflect social
and cultural contexts.

Media Language

Question 2 is based on the print resource: a newspaper front page for the Daily Mail (November 15, 2018). Study the resource carefully before answering the question.

2. Explore how codes and conventions are used to construct meaning in the Daily Mail front
page. [15]

SECTION B: UNDERSTANDING MEDIA INDUSTRIES AND AUDIENCES

3. (a) Briefly explain what is meant by a mainstream film. [2]

(b) Briefly explain the function of the BBFC in the film industry. [2]

(c) Explain the role of regulation in the global distribution of films. Refer to Straight Outta Compton to support your points. [9]

In Question 3(d) you will be rewarded for drawing together knowledge and understanding from

across your full course of study, including different areas of the theoretical framework and media

contexts.

(d) Explain the ways in which social and political contexts may influence independent films.
 Refer to I, Daniel Blake to support your points. [12]

4. (a) Explain the significance of fans to the success of media products. Refer to Assassin’s Creed III: Liberation to support your points. [8]

(b) How do media producers target specialised audiences? Refer to Assassin’s Creed III: Liberation to support your points. [12]

MEDIA STUDIES – A level Component 2

Media Forms and Products in Depth

2 hours 30 minutes

SECTION A – TELEVISION IN THE GLOBAL AGE

Option 2: Humans and The Returned

2. ‘Television products are significantly influenced by the contexts in which they are produced.’
How evident is this in Humans and The Returned? [30]

SECTION B – MAGAZINES: MAINSTREAM AND ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

Option 1: Woman and Adbusters

4. Curran and Seaton argue that media industries are generally controlled by a small number of
powerful companies whose main purpose is to create a profit. Evaluate this theory of power and media industries. Refer to Woman and Adbusters in your response. [30]

SECTION C – MEDIA IN THE ONLINE AGE

Option 2: Zoe Sugg/Zoella and Attitude

8. (a) Explain Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity. Use Zoe Sugg/Zoella to support your response. [15]

(b) Explore how the Attitude website targets and attracts a specialised audience. [15]

Videogames 9 - fandom and active audience theory

Examples of fandom: fan videos

Fan videos allow fans to build on an existing franchise, and to communicate with other fans, a process that Jenkins refers to as participatory culture

In the 3rd person action videogame Dark Souls 3, players are encouraged to fight through a ruined world filled with extremely difficult encounters. 

The Dark Souls series is famous for it's difficulty, and hardcore fans have flocked to this niche product as it's difficulty differentiates it from other modern games. Ask a true videogame nerd what they think of Assassin's Creed, and they'll likely laugh at you: Assassin's Creed is a game for casual gamers...

But Dark Souls is also famous for it's narrative, or perhaps its apparent lack of narrative. Unlike many modern games (like Assassin's Creed) there's no attempt to explain the 'plot to its audiences. Instead the player has to piece the puzzle together themselves, if they care enough to do it!

This is an example of a double mode of address, where a media product (in this case a game) targets two different audiences at the same time. Some players (such as myself) really enjoy the Dark Souls series and its difficulty, but frankly don't care about the 'story'. They just enjoy the atmosphere and the thrill of exploration.

Other players, the hardest of the hardcore, will analyse every single aspect of the game, and even make extremely well researched fan videos explaining what is going on

Task: watch the first two-ish minutes of this video

Please note: none of this is clear in the game at all. I played the entire game and literally knew none of this stuff.

• Why did 'Vaati Vidya' make such a technically accomplished and extremely well researched video?
• How does this video address its audience? Think language, vocal delivery, editing...
• Who is the target audience for this video?
• Take a look at the number of views and answer again: who is the target audience for this video?

Henry Jenkins and fan theory

The above video is an excellent example of what the media theorist Henry Jenkins refers to as fandom.

Task: before you do anything else, check out this video introducing Henry Jenkins' theory of fandom, making notes on all the key points

A fan is different to an audience member. An audience may enjoy a media product. They might watch every new Avengers film for example. But in order to be a fan, they need to go further. Put extremely simply, a fan is somebody who actively does something with a media product. Fandom can manifest itself in lots of ways , but it can be evidenced in the following, non-exhaustive ways:

• Attending a convention
• Dressing up as a character from the franchise (cosplay)
• Getting a themed tattoo (not a good idea lol)
• Joining and contributing to an online forum on the topic
• Buying themed merchandise, for example action figures
• Writing fan fiction 
• Going on holiday specifically to visit where a film was filmed
• Wearing a band T-shirt
• Following a band on tour
• Etc etc etc

Fandom is fascinating, as it demonstrates ways in which audiences can truly actively engage with a media product. 

Task: complete the research task outlined in the image below

First of all, complete the task for the Assassin's Creed franchise. 

Then, as an extension task, do it again for any other videogame franchise you are interested in.

Remember, the more ridiculous examples you can find, the more likely you are to remember them in the exam!

Extension: podcasts and videogame fandom

One excellent way that fans can interact with videogames and the videogame industry is through recording and listening to podcasts. Podcasts can range from the extremely amateurish, to the professional examples that I have linked below. We're really getting in to extension and wider reading territory here, but if you want to push your knowledge of participatory culture and the videogame industry, these podcast tasks would make for an excellent example to refer to in the exam.

Extension task: listen to the following podcasts (just a minute or two each, and make notes under the following headings:

• Target audience
• Mode of address
• Subject matter
• USP (unique selling point)

Cane and Rinse

Hardcore Gaming 101

Axe of the Blood God

The Retro Hour

Attitude and Zoella: applying key theory

For this session, you will be taking everything you know about Zoella and Attitude, and you will be using the resources on the blog and your own notes to answer a series of questions. Think of it as something between an end of unit quiz and a revision exercise.

• For each of these questions, you must provide two answers: one for Zoella and one for Attitude! (there are a couple of exceptions. Keep an eye out for these). This should keep you going for a while
• For each and every response, you must make reference to at least one key example of media language from the textual analysis toolkit 

This is the last session we will be spending on Attitude and Zoella. Next time, we will be going back to the advertising industry for the first week of revision.

Resources

Theories and theorists 

Cheat sheet

Textual analysis toolkit

Media Language

1 - Semiotics - Roland Barthes - identify one particularly persuasive proairetic code for both Zoella and Attitude

4 - Structuralism - Claude Lévi-Strauss - Demonstrate an example of how a diametric opposition reinforces a dominant ideological perspective for both Zoella and Attitude

5 - Postmodernism - Jean Baudrillard - present one example of how audiences may be unable to distinguish between reality and simulation for both Zoella and Attitude

Representation

6 - Theories of representation - Stuart Hall - Give one example of a stereotype that reinforces hegemonic hierarchical ideological perspectives demonstrates an inequality of power for both Zoella and Attitude

7 - Theories of identity - David Gauntlett - give an example of how audiences can pick and mix a specific element of identity from both Zoella and Attitude

10 - Theories of gender performativity - Judith Butler - give an example of how gender can be constructed through a ritualistic act in Zoella

11 - Theories around ethnicity and postcolonial theory - Paul Gilroy - present one example of how gay people are 'othered' in Attitude 

Industry

13 - Regulation - Sonia Livingstone and Peter Lunt - give one example of how internet regulatory guidelines are followed for both Zoella and Attitude

14 - Cultural industries - David Hesmondhalgh - present one explicit example of horizontally integrated business practices for both Zoella and Attitude

Audience

16 - Cultivation theory - George Gerbner - present one example of a generally accepted ideological perspective that is consistently repeated for both Zoella and Attitude

18 - Fandom - Henry Jenkins - give one example of how fans can interact with and use Zoella to demonstrate their adoration

19 - ‘End of audience’ theories - Clay Shirky - To what extent can audiences actually be said to take the role of producers when interacting with Zoella and Attitude? Present one shakey argument for each

Final task

Take one of these pub quiz style questions, and turn it in to an exam style question. You can find lots of examples of component two questions by clicking here. 

Then answer your own question! use the resources of this blog and your own excellent notes to prepare, before writing a 50 minute long response to your own question.

Make sure you publish your blog post so I can see it and mark it. 

Here's a picture of my cat, for no particular reason.

Attitude Online and the online magazine industy

This session is all about industry.

Attitude Online is the online version of the print version of Attitude magazine. As we have seen, it has many differences in terms of style, content and even it's target audience. The magazine version of Attitude specifically targets a middle class and aspirational audience, while the straightforward lexis and modes of address of Attitude online is clearly targeting a working class audience.

However, let us return to the conclusions that we made in the very first session on Attitude when we looked at the representation of gay men:

What is the point of Attitude online, and how does it work?

1 - Attitude.co.uk is a simple and straightforward website, and targets a 'simple and straightforward audience'
2 - Attitude.co.uk presents stereotypical and straightforward representations of gay men to construct a stereotypical and straightforward audience
3 - The sole reason that Attitude.co.uk exists is to advertise the magazine to the target audience, and to increase its profit through advertising revenue 

This last point is especially important. Attitude is a digitally convergent media product, multimedia integrated media product which utilises hypermodality in order to exploit a range of push/pull factors, in order to maximise its revenue.

Key term - digital convergence - the coming together of previously separate media industries thanks to the benefits of digital technology. For example Netflix is an example of the convergence (coming together) of film, TV and the internet.

Key term - multimedia integration - where an organisation is structured around a variety of different types of convergent media. Attitude online is multimedia, as it encourages interaction between the website, and then buying the physical magazine

Key term - hypermodality - where a media product 'goes beyond' the traditional forms of communication. When you click on a hyperlink on Attitude and move to a different article, section, or even different website, this is hypermodality

Key term - push/pull factors - changes in digital technology have 'pushed' audiences away from traditional media platforms, such as print magazines and live television. However, smart media producers can use techniques such as hashtags, viral marketing and targeting advertising to 'pull' audiences back in. The huge banner advert at the top of the Attitude site to subscribe to the print magazine is an excellent example of a 'pull factor' 

Task - read through the context in this section, and make sure you copy and paste these definitions in to your own blog

Attitude's press pack

A press kit or a press pack is "is a pre-packaged set of promotional materials that provide information about a person, company, organization or cause and which is distributed to members of the media for promotional use". They are excellent resources for analysing the ideology and the business strategy of a media, as well as explicit key facts about audience and sales figures

Task - click here to access the press pack for Attitude, and make EXTENSIVE notes on the target audience, sales figures, and any other information you may think is useful. 

Note: if the link is down, please move on to the next activity. Sorry!

Stream media and Attitude's production context

At the footer of the Attitude website, usually tucked behind an ugly pop-up advert is a link to Attitude's publisher, Stream Media

Stream Media is a publisher of a specific kind of magazine, and they target a niche audience.

Task - read through Stream Media's web page. Click around, read some articles, and get a grasp for what kinds of content they create and publish.

• What kind of magazines do Stream publish?
• What similarities do these magazines have to Attitude?
• Does Stream target a niche or a diverse range of readers?
• What kind of website is this, and who is the target audience? BIG HINT! Think back to the IPC/Time Media website when we studied Woman...
• What does Stream own? Does this make it vertically or horizontally integrated?
• Attitude's website was only launched in 2016. Why did the magazine wait so long to create a website?

Task - Read this article, about the acquisition of Attitude by Stream media. Why did Stream acquire (buy) Attitude? Apply Hesmondhalgh and Curran & Seaton's theories

Exploring theory - Hesmondhalgh - The Cultural Industries (3rd edition) (2013)

Task: read the following two extracts from David Hesmondhalgh's book The Cultural Industries, and then answer the question below

i

Many commentators go much further than I have above in pointing to change. Some claim, for example, that digitalisation has transformed cultural production beyond recognition. The internet and the mobile phone have triumphed. The music industry is dying or already dead, they say. Television is over. Book publishing as we knew it is finished. Yet these industries continue to pour out huge amounts of product, employ tens of thousands of people, produce considerable amounts of revenue, and occupy vast amounts of our time. Some optimistically see a new age where distinctions between producers and audiences disappear, and ‘users’ become the new creators. Commentary of this kind often implies, and sometimes explicitly states, that all the old notions and models need to be thrown out, and the history of cultural production is irrelevant because we are now living in an ‘information age’ rather than an ‘industrial age’ (or some other term that serves to simplify the past). Others see transformation just over the horizon. In many cases, it is unclear whether we are reading analysis of what is happening now, or a prediction of the future.

(ibid:3)

ii 

Concentration, integration and co-opting publicity
Cultural industry companies deal with risk and the need to ensure audience maximisation by using strategies that are also apparent in other sectors.

• Horizontal integration - They buy up other companies in the same sector to reduce the competition for audiences and audience time.

• Vertical integration - They buy up other companies involved in different stages of the process of production and circulation. Companies might buy ‘downstream’, such as when a company involved in making films buys a DVD distributor, or ‘upstream’, which is when a company involved in distribution or transmission (such as a cable television company) buys a programme-maker.

• Internationalisation - By buying and partnering other companies abroad, corporations can sell massive amounts of extra copies of a product they have already paid to produce (though they will have to pay new marketing costs, of course).

• Multisector and multimedia integration - They buy into other related areas of cultural industry production to ensure cross-promotion.

 Also important is the attempt to ‘co-opt’ (Hirsch, 1990[1972]) critics, DJs and various other people responsible for publicising texts, by socialising with them and sending them gifts, press releases, and so on. 

(ibid:30-31)

Note: 'co-opting' is taking somebody else's ideas or strategies.

Task - Use all the information you have gathered in this session to create a bullet point plan for this question

Curren & Seaton argued that the media industries are solely motivated by the acquisition of profit and the procurement of power. To what extent does Attitude Online conform to this practice?