Media Studies Glossary

The newspaper industry has a range of very specific key terms, which you can find by clicking here!

In component one section b, you will have to define at least one key word related to media industries. You can find a (sort of) complete list of media industry terminology by clicking here!

Here you will find definitions of many of the key terms and theories you will come across over your Media course. Please note the following things:

• This is not an exhaustive list
• You definitely do not need to know every term on this list, and definitely do not need to use anywhere near all of these terms in the exam
• These are definitions, not explanations
• All these terms relate to A Level Media Studies and may mean different things in different subjects. 'Paradigm', for example has a totally different meaning in science subjects

This glossary is always going to be a work in progress. If you think there's any glaring omissions, or if the definition given makes no sense, please let us know!

180-degree rule - A guideline which involves placing an 'invisible line' down the centre of the action that the camera cannot cross. Therefore characters will always remain on the same side of the screen in a shot/counter shot. 

Action code - a visual code or technical code within a media product which connotes to an audience that something is about to happen. Also known as a proairetic code. 

Active audience - The idea that an audience is proactive when consuming media products, choosing which products to consume and interpreting different meanings through a process of negotiation 

Advert/advertising - An advert is an audio-visual, audio or visual product that attempts to sell a product to a target audience.

Amplification - Where an issue is blown out of proportion due to being overrepresented in the mass media. Examples include the 'hoodie horror' panic of the early 2000's

Antagonist – The one who acts against the hero or protagonist in a narrative

Agenda - the ideological goals of a media product. Often a media product will attempt to change the ideology of an audience, for example in a party political broadcast

Allegory  - A story or narrative that appears to be about one thing, but is actually making reference to a wider issue, event or debate. For example, George Orwell’s Animal Farm may seem to be about talking pigs, but is actually allegorical of the Russian Revolution. Likewise, the zombie film Dawn Of The Dead (Romero, 1978) is widely viewed as an allegorical criticism of consumerism

Anchoring/anchorage - The use of various visual codes and technical codes to 'fix' a particular meaning, or ideology

Anthropomorphism - Where an animal, object or concept is given human qualities. Often used in nature documentaries.

Appeal - The ways in which a media product can attract or give pleasure to an audience, for example through the use of genre paradigms or celebrities

Arc of transformation - The changes a character goes through in a narrative. Along the way, characters may learn, and improve, leading to a transformation be the end of the story. Also known as a character arc

Arc shot - A very specific shot where the camera tracks around a static subject in a circle. Popular in music videos, and can be accompanied with a time lapse 

Archetype - A type of character that crops up time and time again in media products. In teen movies, we often have the nerd, jock, cheerleader and class clown archetypes. Archetypes can be used as a shortcut to help producers establish characters and generic conventions quickly

ASA - The Advertising Standards Agency, in charge of regulating the advertising industry in the UK.

Aspect ratio - The ratio between the width and height of a screen

Aspirational - Where a media product  encourages an audience to acquire more money and a better social standing

Attract - How a media product creates appeal to persuade audiences to consume media products

Audience - The group of people who consume a media product. Audiences can be small and specific, or big and more generalised

Audience categorisation - The different ways in which audiences are grouped by media producers. Examples of categorisation include by demographics, psychographics and/or by socio-economic class

Avatar - The image or graphic that represents a player's character in a videogame. Also known as a player character. Nobody has actually used this word outside of a media textbook since about 1996

Back light - Where a light is placed behind a subject.

BBFC - The British Board of Film Certification is a non-government affiliated organisation the awards age certificates to almost all films commercially released in the United Kingdom. It is a legal obligation for a film to have a BBFC age certificate before screened in a public place. If a film is denied a BBFC certificate, it is effectively banned in the United Kingdom.

Berliner - A format of newspaper, somewhere between the size of a tabloid and a broadsheet. An example of a UK paper which now uses the Berliner format is the former broadsheet The Guardian

Bias/media bias - Where the producers of a media product demonstrate a prejudice towards a certain group, or favouritism towards another. A one-sided perspective.

Binary opposition - Where two people, concepts, objects or ideologies are presented as the complete opposite of one another. Often creates conflict within the narrative, and one side of the binary is generally presented as being less desirable than the other

Blog - Abbreviation of 'web log'. A collection of articles, often by one producer, and often taking the form of a diary or informal news source. You're currently reading one. Unless you’re reading the printed version of this glossary. In which case you are not

Brand - A collection of elements that identify one product from another product. The Apple brand is, in part defined by the iconography of a half-eaten apple

Brand identity - The identity or the 'personality' that is constructed through the branding of a product. For example, while they are fast food restaurants, Five Guys, McDonalds and Byron Burger all have radically different brand identities, and target completely different audiences

Bricolage - Where a media product is constructed with iconography and conventions from many other texts, creating entirely new meanings. Often used when discussing postmodern media product s. An example of a media product  that uses bricolage is a 'mashup'. For an excellent example of bricolage, check out Quentin Tarrantino’s Kill Bill (2003)

Broadcast - Where a media product is distributed to a mass audience using mass communication techniques. A good example of broadcast media is television. As we move towards total digital convergence, audience fragmentation has lead to a decline in broadcasting. The opposite of broadcasting is narrowcasting. 

Broadsheet - Large format newspaper, typically targeted at more affluent, middle class audiences

Canted angle - Where the camera is tilted on its axis, creating a skewed image. Often used to disorientate or confuse the audience

Capitalism - a social system which puts value on competition, the exploitation of labour and an emphasis on profit

Celebrity - "The attribution of glamorous or notorious status to somebody in the public sphere" (Rojec, cited in Abercrombie & Longhurst, 2007:54)

Censorship - The control over the content of media products. Where elements of a media product are removed that are considered obscene, harmful to the state, or harmful to the audience. Different countries have radically different censorship laws.

Character arc - The 'journey' a particular character goes through in a narrative. See also story arc and arc of transformation

Chronological - In the order of time

Circulation - a count of how many copies of a media product are distributed. This can include physical distribution and digitally distributed products

Cinematography - Everything to do with the camera

Class - A way of identifying audiences based on their 'place within society'. For example middle class or working class

Closed narrative - A closed narrative has a definite conclusion. The vast majority of films have closed narrative

Close up - Where the camera is positioned very close to the subject. This shot can be used to connote intimacy or even aggression

Code - any aspect within a product that creates meaning for the audience. For example "the high key lighting codifies the intense relationship between the protagonist and her lover".

Connotation - the deeper meaning of a word, visual code or technical code

Construction - The ways in which meaning is created for the audience through the process of making a media product. For example, the consistent representation of women in a subservient role may construct a representation of women as being inferior to men

Consumption - how an audience uses or engages with a media product. This varies wildly depending on the product. Additionally, digital technologies have allowed audiences completely new ways of consuming media products

Commodity - A product which is bought or sold

Commodity fetishism - Where an object is prized for its monetary value rather than it's quality. An example could be a luxury clothes brand like Gucci, whose products function in the same way as other items of clothing, but cost many times more. Wearing a Gucci dress may therefore give an individual cultural capital

Commodification - Where an object, person of product is turned in to something that is bought and sold. Some may argue this removes any artistic value

Conglomeration - The process of two or more businesses that joining together,  of completely different industries, for the purpose of power and profit

Continuity editing - Where a media product is edited to give the illusion of the flow of movement and time

Connotation - The deeper meaning of a word. A 'rose' is simply a plant, but when it is given as a present, it holds many deeper meanings

Consumerism – An ideology based on basing one’s self-worth from the acquiring of consumer products. For Marx, one particular symptom of consumerism is commodity fetishism

Contrapuntal sound - The deliberately use of sound which does not fit with the current visuals. Often used to disorientate the audience, or for comedy

Convention/conventional - A visual code or technical code that is typical of a certain genre or style. A conventional spots broadcast would include on screen graphics, slow motion replays and middle aged men discussing the sport in a studio. See also paradigm. If a product does not use the conventions expected, it is unconventional

Convergence - The coming together of previously separate industries, for example film, television, music etc. The widespread use of digital technology means we often access many different media on the same device. This process is called digital convergence

Cultural capital - Monetary capital refers to how much money somebody has. Cultural capital refers to the things which are not money that give us social mobility. Examples include knowledge of classical music, fine dining, world cinema and ways of dressing

Cultural imperialism - The domination of one culture over another culture. For example, the music charts in the UK are generally dominated by US music, despite the geographical distance between the two countries. This is a form of hegemony 

Deep focus - A shot where both the foreground and background is in focus

Demographic - A simple way of categorising an audience, based on, for example, gender, race, nationality, age, or other easily quantifiable aspects

Diegesis - The world of the narrative

Diegetic sound - Sound which occurs within the world of the narrative, for example footsteps, dialogue, and music created by an on-screen source

Digital convergence - The coming together of previously separate industries thanks to digital technologies. For example, the film, videogame and news industries can now all be accessed readily from discrete mobile devices (ie your phone)

Digital distribution - the process of distributing or making available a media product using digital technologies. Examples include accessing/streaming a video using YouTube or Dailymotion

Digital technology - Any technology that is encoded in a digital format, for example media products which are accessed online or created using digital means such as Premiere Pro. Most media technologies now are digital

Disequilibrium/disruption of equilibrium - The stage in a narrative where the equilibrium or balance is broken by the main events of the narrative media product . For example, in the Disney film Aladdin, the equilibrium is disrupted by the homeless, poverty stricken protagonist of the narrative finding a life changing magic lamp

Distribution - the process of making a media product available to audiences so that they can consume it, which includes aspects of marketing such as creating an advertising campaign. Examples include an album being sold on CD in a shop or digitally distributed online

Dolly - A device, often mounted on rails that a camera can be attached to. Allows for smooth tracking shots 

Dominant ideology - The set of ideas or culture that is most common in society. For example, football is the UK's most popular sport, and the back page of most newspapers is totally devoted to it

Dominant reading - Where the audience agrees with the ideology of the text. See also negotiated, oppositional and aberrant reading

Dutch tilt - See canted angle

Equilibrium - The state of balance that occurs in a narrative, which is promptly disrupted 

Gaze - The way in which an audience looks at subjects within a media product. Different audiences will be anchored by media producers to look at media products in different ways

Effects model/hypodermic needle model - A theoretical framework, devised by German Marxists, which suggests that media products have an immediate and obvious effect on their audiences. There are many issues with this theory

Encoding/decoding - The idea that a producer will 'build in' their ideologies and bias into a media product. For example, a news broadcast may show a politician pulling a stupid face, encoding the ideology that they are stupid and not to be trusted. However an audience may interpret this as the politician being funny and approachable. Audiences can therefore decode media products in many different ways

Enigma code - A visual code or technical code which connotes mystery to the audience. For example a gloved hand covering a man's face, followed by a shock cut to the film's title, leaves the audience unaware of the identity of the killer, with an expectation the mystery will be 'solved' by the end of the film. Also known as a hermeneutic code.

Equilibrium - A state of balance in the narrative. Usually occurs at the start or even directly before a narrative begins, and is almost always disrupted by a disequilibrium

Establishing shot - A shot, usually at the start of a scene, which demonstrates to the audience the setting where the scene is occurring. Very often a long shot or extreme long shot

Extreme close up/ECU - Where the camera is positioned very close to the subject. For example, an eye may fill the entire screen

Extreme long shot - Where the camera is positioned a very long way from the subject. For example, a person may be a dot on the horizon in an ECU

Feminism - An ideology that works towards equality between women and men

Fetishisation – The process of holding something in particularly high regard, often to an obsessive level. Fetishisation is often sexual in nature, but anything can be fetishised, including wealth and power. See also commodity fetishism

Flashback - Where a narrative moves back in time to a previous event. Generally it is essential to signal to the audience that this has occurred, through the use of a filter or warp, for example.

Foley - Specially recorded sounds which fill in for footsteps, clothes rustling, doors opening, and other sounds which the microphone tends to not record during principal photography

Fill light - A weaker light which is used alongside a key light to avoid excessive shadows being cast on a subject

Gender - A particularly contested term, often used in Media to refer to how an individual identifies as, for example male, female, trans, agender etc.

Gender binary - The idea that there is a clear distinction between what makes a 'man' and what makes a 'woman'

Gender performativity - Idea attributed Judith Butler. The ways in which an individual 'acts out' their chosen gender. Some acts are seen as being typically male or female. For example, getting into fights, wearing trousers and sexual promiscuity are often seen as being typically 'masculine' acts, and may even be socially acceptable. However there are many men who do not live up to this gender role, and conversely many women that do. Therefore, Butler argues that the representation of gender is a social construct as well as a biological one

Hegemony - The influence of power over one group over another

Hermeneutic code - A visual code or technical code which connotes mystery to the audience. For example a gloved hand covering a man's face, followed by a shock cut to the film's title, leaves the audience unaware of the identity of the killer, with an expectation the mystery will be 'solved' by the end of the film. Also known as an enigma code

Hyperlink – An indexed point on a website, for example a word or image, that allows access to other data through clicking on it. Hyperlinks allow users to jump from webpage to webpage, and are a perfect example of hypermodality

Hypermodality – Where a media product, most notably an online media product goes beyond traditional modality through the use of hyperlinks. This allows audiences new and exciting ways of exploring and interacting with media products, but it can also lead to users falling down internet rabbit holes.

Hyperreferentiality – Where a media product only makes sense through a system of complex intertextual knowledge. While many media products make use of intertextuality, hyperreferential products only possibly make sense to those who are aware of the references it makes.

Hyperreality – A representation of nothing. A representation of something that does not exist. Through the use of hyperreal imagery, audiences now confuse the signs of the real for the real. And in many cases, the hyperreal is far more attractive than reality itself!

Ident - A very short film which demonstrates the ideology of an institution

Ideology - A system of beliefs and values. Every media product has an ideology, even if it's very simple!

Internal diegetic sound - The sound heard in a character's head, often demonstrating the 'inner thoughts' of the character

Intertextuality - Where a media product or text makes reference to another media product or text.

Institution - An organisation which distributes media products and is recognised by audiences as a respected, trustworthy and/or noteworthy organisation. Institutions typically have their own ideologies. Long Road is an institution, with ideologies that differentiate it from other sixth form colleges in Cambridge

Jump cut - an edit which cuts between the same subject in the same framing, creating a jarring 'jump' effect. Almost always a mistake, but can be used to create a disorientating atmosphere

Key light - A big, powerful light that typically provides the majority of light in a given shot. Usually balanced out with a fill light and back lights

Lighting - The act of providing artificial light or manipulating natural lighting. Cameras generally need lots of light to create a compelling image

Linear narrative - A narrative which progresses in a chronological, straightforward line

Long shot - A shot where the camera is positioned a long way from the subject. Often used to connote isolation

Long take - A shot which is uninterrupted by cuts for a long time. While there's no hard and fast rule, it's unusual for a shot to last for more than 20 seconds. Some films, for example Birdman, are a single extreme long take.

Majors - A producer, for example a film producer, that creates a significant amount of media products and is a market leader in their field,. Examples of major film studios include 20th Century Fox, Warner Bros. and Disney.

Marxism - A way of seeing the world first in part devised by Karl Marx. It assumes the working class and the ruling class are in constant conflict, and that the ruling class uses many methods, for example the mass media and hegemony to control the working class

Mass media - Media which reaches a particularly large audience. Marxist theorists are often worried over the effect that having such direct communication could have.

Media - The plural of 'medium'. A categories of products that disseminate some form of information, for example film, music, television and social media

Media panic – an alarmist and/or sensationalist reaction to the dangers of new media and digital technologies. Examples of media panics include the ‘Momo challenge’ and ‘happy slapping’. Closely related to moral panics

Media product - Anything which is studied within media studies, from a music video or newspaper to a TV programme or an advert. Anything which can be read. We also use the term text

Metanarrative - A system of beliefs that give a set of rules for people to live their life by. Examples include religion, Marxism, Feminism and so on

Middle class  - A class group who are between the working class and the upper class. In the United Kingdom, middle class people are often (yet not always defined) as having a university education, working in a professional role such as a manager, teacher or doctor, and certain other lifestyle choices. Middle class people will therefore have a certain degree of cultural capital

Mid shot - A shot between a long shot and a close up. In general, a mid shot will show most of the subject and also include the setting. Sometimes used interchangeably with two shot

Mode of address - The way in which a media product 'speaks' to its audience

Montage - Where a series of shots are edited in such a way as to create meaning

Moral panic – where a particularly strong fear about a certain thing is spread rapidly through society on a massive scale. Examples include rap music, punk music, rock music, witch hunts (historical and unfortunately modern), Dungeons & Dragons, violent videogames like Doom, knife crime, ‘hoodies’, and ‘the Momo challenge’. Often these fears are quickly shared using digital media, which transforms in to a media panic

Multimodality – Where a media product uses many forms or modes. For example, a music video is multimodal through combining sound, vision and often dance. A magazine is multimodal because in combines image and text. The audience is then able to make sense of the product through the combination of these modes. See also hypermodality.

Multi strand narrative - A narrative with many different stories or strands. Many sitcoms will have at least two simultaneous stories being told

MPAA - The Motion Picture Authority of America, in charge of the certification of cinema within the US

Narrative - The way in which a story is told

Negotiation/negotiated reading - The process of 'give and take' between an audience and producer, where the audience decides which of the producer's ideological perspectives to accept or reject. A negotiated reading involves the audience partially agreeing with the dominant reading of the media product

News agenda - See agenda

Non diegetic sound - Sound which occurs outside of the world of the narrative. Examples include score music and voiceovers

Non-linear narrative - A narrative that does not occur in chronological order. Non-linear narratives often make use of flashbacks and flash-forwards.

Objectification - Where a person is represented as an object, with no thoughts, feelings or power

Omniscient narrative- A narrative where the audience is aware of what every character knows. Omniscient narratives are pretty rare, as they lack enigma. They are popular in soap operas, which follow a large ensemble of characters

Open narrative - A narrative with no ending in sight. Examples typically include soap operas and long running TV series. Open narratives generally still have story arcs and narrative conclusions

Oppositional reading - Where the audience goes against the dominant ideology of a media product. An audience reading that contradicts the preferred reading of the producer

Othering – The process of viewing someone or something who is not the same as different and threatening. Someone who is not ‘the same’ but is represented or perceived as being ‘different. Since from a hegemonic perspective many media products assume the audience to be white, straight men, examples of groups who are routinely othered include young people, black people, gay people, and women. Horror films in particular often play off the threat of the other, and the antagonist will often be an allegorical representation of a marginalised group.

Paradigm/paradigmatic - A visual code or technical code that shows the audience what genre something is. For example, pouring blood, screaming and a night time setting are all paradigmatic of the horror genre. The word paradigm can be used interchangeably with the word convention.

Patriarchy - A male dominated society

Player character - The character that the player controls in a videogame. See also avatar. 

Pleonastic - A sound which has been emphasised (usually by volume but can also be through bass etc), either for the excitement or expectation of the audience

Plurality -  Where a media product exhibits and gives voice to a wide range of ideological perspectives

Polysemy/polysemic - Where a media product holds many different meanings. Different audiences may therefore come up with completely different interpretations of what the meaning of the text is!

Positioning - Where an audience are placed within a media product. This affects which characters we identify with, which characters we hate, and how much of the ideology we accept. Producers can position audiences using lighting, camera angles, shot types, soundtrack and so on

Postcolonialism - The study of the impact that being under direct rule has had on former colonies. For example, despite being a tiny island, Britain colonised and declared ownership of many countries, including India and Australia. Check out Paul Gilroy for more information on this, and the ideological implications it can lead to

Postmodernism - A complex style of media which often breaks established rules (for example breaking the fourth wall), adopts a deliberately trashy aesthetic, blurs space and time, and favours style over substance

Preferred reading - Where the audience agrees with and accepts the ideology of the media product, as presented by the producer. See also dominant, aberrant and negotiated readings

Prime time - The period of time, usually in the late evening, where the most popular television shows are scheduled 

Proairetic code - a visual code or technical code within a media product which connotes to an audience that something is about to happen. Also known as an action code.

Producer - The maker of a media product. This term is always used, regardless of the official title of the producer

Product - The end result of a period of production, for example a television programme, a film, or a website

Production - The process in which a media product is made. There are completely different production processes for different media industries

Promotion - The use of advertising to increase the audience's awareness of a product

Propaganda - The use of the mass media by the dominant class to sway the opinions of the subject class

Punctum - A portion of a media product that causes an intense emotional response for the audience for reasons that cannot be defined by textual analysis. Literally the 'thing that pricks us' (!). A concept suggested by Roland Barthes

Negotiation - The process where an audience decides which ideologies they accept, and which they reject

Rabbit hole - Where the user of online media becomes lost in a distracting maze of hyperlinks and ends up somewhere completely unrelated to where they started. Media producers can use rabbit holes to manipulate vulnerable audiences. The term comes from the novel Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carrol

Regulation - The rules and legal guidelines an industry has to follow when making media products. For example, when releasing a film in the UK, a producer must ensure their film complies with the guidelines of the BBFC

Repetition and difference - theory attributed to Steve Neale. Refers to how audiences seek media products which both repeat genre conventions, yet also offers something new in terms of genre. An example could be Shawn of the Dead, which contains the familiar, repeated features of the zombie subgenre and the comedy genre, yet gives audiences something fresh and different by combining them

Representation - The ways in which media products 're-present' a certain group of people, an event, an issue and so on. Representations are constructed from visual codes and technical codes and reveal the ideology of the producer. Representation often use stereotypes, and can affect the way the represented group is treated in society

Restricted narrative - A narrative where the audience is positioned with a single character or group of characters, and only knows what they know. The majority of narratives are restricted. The opposite is an omniscient narrative

Scheduling - The specific time when a TV programme is show. Many things can affect when a programme is shown, for example how popular it is and what explicit content it may contain

Score - Music which is composed specifically for a media product

Sex - A widely contested term, in Media, we often use this term to refer to the biological categorisation of an individual. See also gender and gender performativity

Shallow focus/shallow depth of field - Where one or more parts of the shot will be out of focus

Shot - An uninterrupted sequence of film

Shot/reverse shot - Usually used to depict a conversation between two people, the editor will cut between one person talking to the other person who is off screen. Sot/reverse shot montages in particular need to follow the 180 degree rule

Shoulder mount - a device that allows a camera to be steadied by the shoulder of the camera operator. Makes tracking shots a lot smoother

Simulacra – A copy of a copy, a representation of a representation. Something that refers to something else, and not something ‘real’.  Jean Baudrillard argued that this copy of a copy is real in its own right…

Simulation – An imitation of something real

Soap opera - A serial drama that typically continues for many years and features a large ensemble of characters. Soaps typically have linear, open and omniscient narratives

Stereotype - A commonly held belief about a certain group of people. Often used in Media products to easily establish character archetypes to the audience

Story arc- A narrative within a narrative that has a definite start and conclusion. Examples include Doctor Who, which often has narratives that are introduced and resolved over several episodes, though most episodes are self - contained narratives 

Streaming - where data is continually and sequentially accessed to allow for instant viewing or listening of media products. Examples of streaming services include Netflix and Spotify

Subcultural capital - If cultural capital is the knowledge that allows us to get on in 'high culture', then subcultural capital is the knowledge, clothing and mannerisms that allow us to get on in a subculture. Examples of things which will give you subcultural capital in the rock/metal music genre subculture include wearing black band t-shirts, studded leather, and knowing a lot about obscure metal bands

Subculture A smaller group within a larger cultural group that has different ideologies to the 'norm'. Examples could include punks, metal heads or squatters

Subgenre - A 'genre within a genre'. Think of it like this: if the genre is the heading, the subgenre is the sub heading. For example, within the crime genre, we have the sub genres detective, gangster, true crime, prison and so on

Subject - The actor, prop or setting that forms the focal point of a shot

Subjective sound - Sound which is either only heard by one character, or is heard more clearly by one character. See also internal diegetic sound

Symbolic code - Where symbolism is encoded into a media product. For example "the red wallpaper here functions as a symbolic code, suggesting that violence is inherent to the scene"

Synergy - Where two different media products are combined and work particularly well as a result. For example a music video, the combination of two previously separate industries, created an entirely new media form

Target Audience - The precise audience which a producer wishes to market a media product towards.

Targeting - The process where a producer makes a Media product relevant and accessible to its target audience

Technical code - The ways in which a product is made that creates meaning for the audience. Examples include camera angles, special effects and lighting.

Text - Anything which is studied within media studies, from a music video or newspaper to a TV programme or an advert. Anything which can be read. We also use the term media product

Time lapse - A long take which is sped up significantly in post-production editing to give the impression of time progressing quickly

Tracking shot - Where the camera follows the subject by being moved itself. This process is made easier and more stable by using a dolly or a shoulder mount

Transgression – The act of deliberately going beyond what is acceptable, often to make a point (or simply to shock the audience)

Transnational media - The ever increasing ways in which media products are produced by producers from different countries and targeted towards audiences from several different countries. 

Two shot - A shot wide enough to feature two characters. Often used interchangeably with mid shot

Unconventional - Something that goes against what is typical of a certain genre or representation

Uses and gratifications model - The ways in which an audience can make use of or take pleasure from a Media product. This could be as the producer intended, or it could be a completely unexpected response, for example writing fan fiction

USP - 'Unique Selling Point'. The aspect which makes a product different from all others.

Verisimilitude - The 'respective realism' of a media product . Each media product has its own sense of realism. For example, magic wands and flying cars are acceptable for the diegesis of Harry Potter, but foul language is not. Therefore, Harry swearing would break the verisimilitude of the media product 

Vertical integration - A practice where a producer owns the methods of production, distribution, as well as rights to the performers and producers

Visual code - Something the audience can see that creates meaning in a media product. Examples include gestures, mise-en-scene and the use of colour

Voyeurism - The pleasure taken from watching someone else where they are unaware of being watched. It's a bit creepy, but this is a pleasure we take every time we watch a film or TV programme

Watershed - A time at which it is considered acceptable for television channels to schedule more adult programming. On many UK channels, this is traditionally 9pm. Many satellite channels, for example Sky 1 have an effective watershed of 8pm

Working class - A class group within society that falls between the middle class and the underclass. In the United Kingdom, the working class are often typified through working in manual labour, often without a university degree, and perhaps lacking in cultural capital

Zoom - A process where the lens of a camera is manipulated to make the subject appear closer. Can also be done in digital post production

Shop opening times

Image stolen off Simon's Media Diploma blog

Writing a Media essay - what to include, and what not to include

The AS Media report is tackled slightly differently to most essays. We've done it in two halves; research, which is completed before the production, and evaluation, which is completed afterwards. You will be combining the research essay that you wrote on thriller conventions, with an evaluation, where you discuss how successfully your thriller opening lived up to the genre conventions you researched.

When you work on completing your report, you will have an opportunity to go back to your research and to iron out any issues that might have occurred. After marking this year's batch, we've been able to form a 'checklist' of things you need to include if you haven't done so already, and things to get rid of if they've snuck in!

The advice in this post can be applied to anything you write in Media Studies, so it's good to get your head around what your teachers are expecting of you right now.

Include key terminology, and put key terms in bold

This one is pretty straightforward. Every time you write anything in Media, with the exception of mock and final exams, you should have the toolkit for textual analysis in front of you. Remember, if you're not using terms like long shot, diegetic sound, rapid-fire editing and enigma codes, you're not writing a Media essay! Make sure your teacher knows where to give you marks by putting all key terms in bold, right now!

Use subheadings and subtitles

If you haven't done so already, take a look at an actual Media Studies book, or get your teacher to show you one. You'll notice use of italics, subtitles, bullet points, words in bold, and box-outs to showcase the most important details. There's absolutely no indication that your essays in Media have to be a block of text, so take this opportunity to really make your work stand out.

Avoid colloquialisms

You're writing an academic essay, not a review for a mainstream film magazine. So avoid any 'casual' language or phrases. This year's winner is "puts the audience on the edge of their seat". If you've written this, I strongly advise getting rid of it, and replacing it with something more scholarly. Why not try

• Uses an array of visual and technical codes to manipulate the emotions of the audience
• The use of rapid fire editing here connotes a frantic sense of excitement
• By positioning audiences with the protagonist through use of extreme close-ups, the producer encodes compassion for the main character, and forces the audience to empathise with them

Proof read, slowly, and out loud

One major way to lose marks is through sloppy grammar that makes your excellent application of the uses and gratifications model completely impossible for the moderator to decipher. We've been giving the same advice for years, and it never stops being relevant: proofread your work out loud. Obviously you're going to look a bit odd if you do this in the middle of the LRC, so at home when everyone's out is a much better option. Without reading your work out loud, things like comma usage and sentence length won't jump out at you. If you run out of breath reading a sentence, you need to cut it down. You'll be surprised how this extremely simple technique completely transforms your essays!

Here's an actual example of a student introduction, and how it can be subtly rewritten to be more clear and succinct:

Before:

When looking at thrillers it is clear that they have featured from the beginning of the film industry, so it was only natural to look at a past one to see the approach to the genre and to draw a comparison between the two. This is due to us creating a thriller opening sequence film so I will be looking at stereotypical and non-stereotypical aspects and how they play into the genre and the narrative. A thriller is a genre of which causes the mood of suspense with elements of excitement, surprise, anticipation and anxiety. In this Essay I will be looking at L.A confidential and blackmail, whilst referencing significant other films by the same director or those around the same time.

After:

The thriller is a genre that has existed since the early days of film. As a genre, it has been so successful as it is able to fill the audience with excitement, anxiety, anticipation and surprise. For our media coursework, we were tasked with making a conventional thriller opening. Before starting production, it was essential that we researched both conventional and non-conventional aspects of the genre, and how these affected the narrative. In this essay I will be looking at L.A Confidential and Blackmail, whilst referencing other significant films by the same directors or those released around the same time.

Film titles generally go in italics

While you're at it, the first time you mention the film, you include the director's surname and the year it was released in brackets. For example: "LA Confidential (Hansen, 1997) displays many paradigms of the thriller genre through its use of generic iconography. The use of setting is especially evocative..."

Make reference to 'the audience' and 'the producer', not 'you' and 'they'

This one's really important, as you're using standard language when there's Media language you should be using instead. "it makes you feel like you're in the film' or any reference to 'you' is simply not good enough at this level. "The use of pleonastic sound involves the audience, positioning them directly in the crime scene" is far more elegant, and it also makes reference to key terminology!

Examples for everything...

Every significant point you make should be backed up with a significant example. You you're trying to demonstrate how thrillers use exposition, then referring to the scene in which White tears down the Christmas decorations in LA Confidential is a great way to backup your point about typical thriller characters and narratives.

...but analyse, don't describe

Thinking about the example above, it's really tempting to describe the scene where White is introduced in LA Confidential in minute detail. You can discuss the conversation between Bud and his co-worker, the brusque manner in which he jumps out the car, the way in which he is introduced through his name being 'printed' below him on screen. However, what you really want to talk about is how thrillers use effective exposition. Here's an example of how you can briefly but effectively refer to a scene to make this point, all the while getting in key terminology to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding.

"Thrillers often have complicated, involved narratives that require concentration on behalf of the audience. In order to ensure that audiences respond in the intended way, Hansen makes extensive use of exposition in the opening act of La Confidential. Bud's character in particular is quickly introduced through a series of mid-shots that confirm his personality. Cutting back and forth between his stern expression and a POV shot of a domestic disturbance, Bud violently rips down a string of Christmas lights. The violence of this act is emphasised through pleonastic, diegetic smashing sounds. Furthermore, the violence of the gesture contrasts with the mise-en-scene of the Christmas lights. This connotes to the audience that Bud is a brutish character, not afraid to use intimidation to get his way. Therefore Bud is a typical anti-hero, a character type common in thriller films, and audiences are aware of this from the outset". 

Use pictures

Pictures don't just look nice (though great presentation is essential for securing the very highest marks), they can illustrate your points effectively. The following four images can be used for the paragraph above:

"Cutting back and forth between his stern expression and a POV shot of a domestic disturbance, Bud violently rips down a string of Christmas lights. The violence of this act is emphasised through pleonastic, diegetic smashing sounds. Furthermore, the violence of the gesture contrasts with the mise-en-scene of the Christmas lights."

You can link text to images by using 'see fig one', or 'see the screenshots to the right for an illustration of how this occurs', or just by putting the images right next to the appropriate text. It's completely up to you!

There's no such thing as 'dark lighting'

Please nip this in the bud now: 'dark lighting' is an oxymoron! However, if you are referring to a dingy mise-en-scene and a deliberately less powerful light being used, you can make reference to low key lighting. Essentially here the key (main) light is dimmed or switched off altogether leaving the cinematographer to use fill and back lighting instead.

Age certificate do not always infer target audience

This can be a tricky thing to wrap your head around. If a Blu-Ray cover has a huge red '18' certificate on it, then it stands to reason it's 'adult' in it's mode of address. Likewise, seeing a 'PG' certificate might tell audiences this film is for a younger audience. However, things rarely work like this. For example the Call of Duty franchise of videogames generally are rated 18, yet their target audience is far younger. Likewise Pokemon is an all ages franchise with a huge secondary audience of twenty-somethings (the amount of Pokemon cards hanging around the Lens Based Media office right now is unseemly!). So never say something as blunt as 'the 18 certificate means the target audience is adults over the age of 18'. Instead, look within the text for clues. LA Confidential is definitely intended for adult audiences, which we know through it's convoluted, enigmatic narrative and themes of racism, homophobia, misogyny (literally the hatred of women) and corruption. Even if you removed most of the bad language, violence and sex, younger teenagers would probably be bored out of their skulls, despite it now being a '12' certificate! 

AS Media - Report part 2 - Evaluation

This post is about the AS evaluation! For the A2 evaluation, click here!

By this point, you will have finished your research. Your research is actually the first half of the report, which is the third and final part of the AS Media coursework. The second half is the evaluation, which you are going to combine with the research to make the overall report. This is more than a little confusing, so make sure you ask your teacher if you're unsure!

The overall structure of the report was posted in October, and you can find it here. You can also find more articles on the report, including essay structure and writing tips by clicking the 'report' label just below the banner. You can also click here for every post labeled with 'report'. Remember, the Long Road Media blog is over a year old now, so not all the good stuff is going to be sitting at the top of the page. You have to use the labels!

However, if you don't feel like clicking, below you will find everything you need to include in the evaluation. You can deal with the whole thing in just four, straightforward paragraphs.

How long is the whole report?

The total word limit is between 1400-1600 words, and should be submitted as a single document, with both the research and evaluation included.

What if I'm already over the word limit?

If you are massively over your word limit, you can shift some paragraphs from the research in to the evaluation. You may well have addressed a lot of these points already!

There are other ways of dealing with the word limit, from using appendicies, to heavy editing. Talk to your teacher for advice!

Evaluation - What to include

• Discuss your use of  visual and technical codes to evaluate your thriller. You must include reference to at least three camera techniques, editing techniques, aspects of mise en scene and sound design, and how these effectively address the audience.
• Evaluate the film’s effectiveness as a thriller. (genre conventions). Again, discuss three genre conventions you used, and how you know you were successful.
• Make reference to other thriller films (including their visual codes, technical codes and genre conventions). How does your film compare? If you were 'heavily influenced' by a film, point out exactly what scenes inspired you. Side-by-side comparisons using screenshots of your film and your research film could be really help your point here.
• Evaluate your own contribution to the group. Were you working on cinematography, editing, sound or mise-en-scene? What specific techniques did you use? How did you overcome any problems? What could you not accomplish, and what will you do different in your next production?

Top tips

• Use bullet points, sub headings and pictures. It helps the teacher/moderator mark your essay!
• Split the report in to two distinct sections.
• Copy-paste the above bullet points in to a word document, and strike them through as you address them
• Ask your teacher for exemplar material

Export Settings

When exporting your final production (thriller opening OR music video), please use these export settings, which will produce a higher quality export than what you used with your rough cuts.

Always remember to click the output name, then to rename your file and to save the file in your own area. 

If at any point you find yourself unsure, it's always worth saving time by asking a teacher or a student who has already exported.

Picturehouse cinema exhibition - Tuesday 13th & Wednesday 14th December

Just a quick reminder the the free theatrical screening of your thriller openings and music videos is coming up very fast indeed!

For first years, your thriller openings will be screened on Tuesday 13th December 

For second years, you'll be seeing your music videos on Wednesday 14th December

We would like you to arrive at 08:30 sharp (stop moaning, it's just one morning!). You will be expected to make your own way to the cinema and from the cinema, back to college. It's on Regent Street near the Grand Arcade, and just above the pub The Regal. 

We'd love to see you all there. You've worked very hard on your productions, and you deserve to see them on the big screen, in the best possible quality! Make sure to bring in your permission slip and hand it into the shop/finance office if you have not done so already.

Opportunities with BBC in software engineering, broadcasting and business roles

The following is from an email sent by the BBC Academy. Make sure to check out opportunities like this every time they come up!

Schemes & Traineeships 

We are currently looking for new talent in Technology and Business.  We would be delighted if you could circulate these fantastic opportunities to your networks as the BBC remains committed to recruiting the best and most diverse new take into its schemes. Applications are open now!

Technology Schemes 

Aimed at school leavers: Broadcast Operator Apprenticeships, Broadcast Engineering Apprenticeship, Software Engineering Apprenticeship

Aimed at graduates: Broadcast Engineering Traineeship, Software Engineering Traineeship.

Whether it’s operating or maintaining our broadcast equipment that puts Radio 1 on air, or writing the code that make iPlayer the most popular catch TV service in the UK, there are a variety of roles for those who have the logical mind set and ambition to work in Technology. Check individual scheme details for entry requirements.  

To find out more got to www.bbc.co.uk/tech-careers

Business 

We are also recruiting for our popular Higher Apprenticeship in Leadership and Management based in London. This sponsored programme incorporating a Pearson College London BA Honours degree in Business Management is for two years. http://www.bbc.co.uk/careers/trainee-schemes-and-apprenticeships/business-support/business-apprenticeship

Applications for all of these schemes are open now and close on 6th January 2017. Schemes start in September 2017.

Extend Hub 

We are excited to launch the new Extend Hub, a recruitment portal exclusively for disabled people. Our aim is to provide a whole range of opportunities: from entry level apprentice/trainee schemes to work experience placements and generic BBC roles within BBC divisions nationwide.
www.bbc.co.uk/extend

And finally...

Remember you can follow us on twitter for latest updates and chats with the team @bbcgetin #bbcgetin

Extreme audience targeting - Spotify billboard campaign

Advertising agencies often use user data to ensure their campaign effectively addresses their target audience. This is usually done in an unobtrusive way in which the advertiser deliberately avoids making reference to individual consumers.

This advertising campaign, for the online streaming service Spotify takes a very different approach, using very specific user data to draw attention to very specific audience practices. One way of looking at the campaign would be that it's a playful look at the uses and gratifications model, which suggests that every audience member can use or take pleasure from a media product in completely different ways. The preferred reading is therefore one of inclusivity, that anyone can use Spotify, in any way they wish.

However a negotiated reading may involve the audience finding the use of accrued online data as intrusive, disturbing, and even threatening! Regardless, the campaign has clearly got a lot of people talking.

Check out the images in this gallery and consider: is this an appropriate way to use audience data?

Thanks to Holly for sharing the link!

A2 Music video evaluation

How do you effectively evaluate your choices of editing and mise-en-scene?

Here are a couple of articles from last year regarding how to secure the highest possible marks for the music video evaluation.

Here's a breakdown of the mark scheme, which luckily only boils down to two things. 

And here's a more detailed breakdown of exactly how to link between your production and research investigation, including a sample opening. 

Finally, here is an exemplar evaluation from last year. Pay attention to the structure, and consider how this evaluation has addressed the mark scheme in the first link. Missing from this version of the evaluation is a series of supporting screenshots from the music video, comparing it to the videos initially researched.

EVALUATION OF MUSIC VIDEO (EXEMPLAR EVALUATION)

The genre we focused on in our music video was ‘pop’, specifically ‘indie’ as the sub genre. The representations we focused on were women and ethnicity. We have attempted to represent this specific genre and representation through cinematography, mise en scene and editing. The two scenes we shot was the master shot, which involved a white female teenager lip syncing (Maiya) and the narrative scene which involved another female protagonist (Tegan). 

 In the master shot, Maiya wore a green blue and pink dress that consisted of a bohemian pattern that is a typical costume design associated with the indie pop genre. Maiya wore golden, pink and green hair bows which were also effective for presenting the mise en scene of the accessories. These denotations connoted the Indie pop genre, as traditionally feminine items are generally used in pop music videos.

An efficient prop used to similarly convey traditional femininity was a white scarf with multicoloured patterns. Maiya was directed to twirl with the scarf, dance and laugh in order to cut to the beat and conform to the typical optimistic mood pop genres portray. She was placed in the centre of a vibrant and colourful background that was projected on a screen. The lighting of the setting was low key as it allowed the projection of the background colours to shine through and also lead there to subjective lighting on Maiya, who is a focal character. The background allowed the master shot to be effective as the colours shone through Maiya’s glittered makeup, colourful costume and white scarf. These colours lead the music video to be conventionally associated with the ‘indie pop’ genre. The multiple colours are a symbolisation of young teenagers and their lively lifestyle.

The narrative scene included a mixed race female teenager who is in the process of getting ready for a party. This narrative scene eventually escalates to Tegan dancing outside. The editing we used was fast cut shots between Tegan’s narrative shots and Maiya’s master shot of her lip synching which kept the pace of the music video steady and allowed it to cut to the beat along with the soundtrack. Long shots and close up shots of Tegan’s actions were shot which were effective because of the effect of continuity between the different sized shots created an effective connection with the music video and the song. For example, we shot a big close up shots of Tegan putting on mascara, which is a archetypal prop for women and the pop genre. We shot a medium long shot of her walking in and out of her room, which captured her light green party dress, conforming to the ‘pop’ genre as most pop music videos thematically consist of partying. We also used transitions such as the cross dissolve fade e.g between a extreme close up of Tegan’s glittered face and a medium close up shot of her shutting the bathroom door. This effectively presents the narrative from different perspectives. Split screen shots were also edited into our production such as in the beginning with the close up shots of cigarettes, laundry and beer bottles. These editing skills effectively represent the hectic lifestyle that a teenage audience can perhaps relate to.  

In my investigation, I discussed the generalisation of women from different ethnicities. In our music video, the representation of race was generally subverted compared to how mixed race or black girls are stereotypically represented in music videos. Indie pop videos characteristically involve white people. However this typicality is subverted as a mixed race female was used as the main protagonist. Tegan had curly hair at the beginning of the video which was seen by close up shots of Tegan doing her makeup. Her hair is eventually straightened towards the middle and ending – mainly during the dancing scenes. This is relative to my investigation as the idea of ethnicities being westernised is discussed and Tegan’s straight hair portrays this traditionally western characteristic. 

In conclusion, the variegated master shots and the fast cut shots of Tegan’s narrative constructs a music video that depicts the stereotypical lifestyle of a teenage girl.

However, the stereotypical representation of ethnicity is subverted, as Tegan –who is mixed race – is not physically sexualised but is depicted as recklessly youthful. 

Thanks to Rujbina for the exemplar evaluation.

Larry Sider sound lecture - Tuesday 22nd November - Arts Picturehouse Cambridge

For all those who were not able to attend the lecture on sound today, these notes of the presentation should give you a good indication of the importance of sound design. This is especially important for AS students who have to create a sophisticated and atmospheric soundtrack in order to ensure the highest grades.

Larry Sider is a lecturer in the Film Sound department at Goldsmiths college, London. His extensive background in soundtrack allows for a privileged and unique perspective into the world of sound in film and media products, as well as its continued importance. Sider's CV is diverse, and includes experimental shorts, feature films and documentaries that he has contributed sound towards.

What is sound design and why is it important?

At the simplest possible level, and one that film and media theorists would doubtless contend, audiovisual texts are made up of sound and vision. More importantly, it is made up of the relationship between sound and vision. Visual codes can influence how we react to audio codes and vice versa. Sider recalls that when he started as a teacher, his heads of department were only interested in students knowing how to record clear dialogue and music. However, these two elements are just the beginning of a sound designer's work. Now we realise exactly how important sound design is.

One commonly repeated maxim is that 'film is one half image one half sound'. Without sound, a film is essentially half finished, and therefore incomprehensible. Some directors go even further. David Lynch, director of such surrealistic masterpieces as Blue Velvet (1986) and Twin Peaks (1990) states that some scenes can be 70%, or even 100%. Sound can therefore, depending on the director and sound designer, be an incredibly potent tool to communicate meaning to the audience. 

Sound can include the music, including 

• score (music written specifically for the film), 
• music not written specifically for the film yet selected especially, and 
• music created by a diegetic source. 

However Sider is not a composer, and works exclusively in directing and editing the other sounds we hear in media texts. These sounds, be they dialogue, footsteps, atmospheric sounds and once more can quickly and effectively convey meaning to the audience. 

All this layering, selection and construction of sound is referred to often as sound design.

Example one

We're going to be using slightly different examples that used by Sider, but the effect should be largely the same. First of all, watch this UK news report on Brazil losing a football match to Germany 7 - 1. However, before the clip starts, mute the audio (stop watching when the football pundits discuss the game in the studio).

As you are watching the clip, consider where it is that you are looking, and think about how the clip makes you feel. 

Next, as you might have guessed, you are going to watch the clip again. This time however, you are going to watch it with the sound on. 

What's the difference? It's likely that there are many different reactions you could take. However, with a soundtrack, the audience can be anchored in certain ways. Anchorage in Media Studies refers to how a media product 'drags' the audience into a certain way of thinking. Music and sound effects are excellent at this; they can tell use exactly what to think and how to feel. A good example of this is the now pretty naff use of canned laughter in sitcoms. We know we're supposed to laugh, because we hear other people laugh, and the actors even stop talking until the laughter stops! 

In this instance, the addition of diegetic crowd noise, combined with the slightly creepy non-diegetic electronic music gives the audience a sense of narrative. Brazil were not supposed to lose against Germany, especially to this extent, and the soundtrack confirms that this is an unexpected and dramatic incident. 

Sound can not only tell us how to react, it can also tell us where to look. Typically, when audiences are shown crowd scenes with no soundtrack, our minds are left to wander. We may focus on arbitrary elements, either people's eyes, mouths or brightly coloured elements, depending on how you typically react to things. While before, you probably found yourself staring intently at certain parts of people's faces, possibly feeling a bit uncomfortable in the rude silence, with the sound you possibly found your eyes relaxing, left to drift around and to see the crowd not as individuals, but as a whole. So therefore, the ideology of the entire sequence has shifted. 

You can try this experiment with other media products and examples, and you will probably find roughly the same thing. Put simply, sound makes meaning clear. So when making your own films, always ask yourself this: how is the sound affecting the audience? What do you want the audience to feel? These are the questions essential to excellent sound design.

Example two

While we have seen previously that sound can make meaning clear, and anchor the audience to feel certain things and look in certain directions, sound has other uses. Instead of using it to pull in an audience, we can use it to alienate them instead. 

Once again we will use another example than the one Sider demonstrated during the lecture. Watch the whole of this scene from Code Unknown, directed by Michael Haneke. This time, play it with the sound up. Pay attention to the sound, the cinematography, and how the scene makes you feel. It's in French, but this will force you to focus on the sound and framing instead. 

Now open this video in a new tab. Skip to anywhere you want in it and press play. Now mute the Code Unknown video and watch it through with the new soundtrack. How does your experience change? 

The original version lacks a soundtrack, and even in French with no subtitles, the scene is horrible. We as an audience are forced to witness a crime, and feel completely powerless. The sound was recorded on location, using only available sounds (though some dialogue may have been re-dubbed in post). The static mid shot forces us to look in a certain direction, and the pleonastic atmospheric sound of the Metro train rumbling makes for an extremely anxious scene. We feel as helpless as the woman, and the man who tries to help.

However, with the guitar soundtrack, the scene has a very different feeling. It feels less awkward, less unpleasant, perhaps a little bit over the top. We know that something bleak and horrible is going to happen, and we expect there to be some kind of resolution. We do not need to think so much. We know the scene is depressing, and that's all we need to know. You could try other soundtracks with other instruments to create many subtle differences in how this scene could be decoded by an audience.

So in this case, the lack of non-diegetic music makes the scene far more unpleasant to watch, and makes the assault so much more anxiety inducing for the audience. But do you necessarily want the audience to feel uncomfortable? Code Unknown is an 'art film', aiming for a small yet very specific audience. Suffice to say, a five minute unbroken shot with no music would not go down well in Hollywood! Sound designers need to make very difficult decisions such as this, working closely with the producers in order to fulfil the creative vision of the production team.

Creating the sound mix

The sound mix refers every sound element mixed together. Excluding music, it can be divided into location recording, voices, atmos, and foleys, which will all be discussed below. Each of these elements is independently mixed into premixes, which allows each element to have it's volume altered independently until the overall mix is satisfactory. Sider describes these elements as follows:

Location recording 

As you will know from making your own productions, initially the only sound you have is recorded on location. This generally sounds pretty rough, with hissing wind, rumbling traffic and barely audible dialogue. While using the location sound is an option, often it's a much better idea to re-record each sound element separately.

Re-voicing 

Refers to the process where voices are re-recorded. This can be a frustrating process, as the re-recorded voices need to sync up with the original delivery of the lines. The actors will re-record voices in a studio. Often the studio will be specially purposed to re-recording.  This process is also called ADR (automated dialogue replacement) or post-syncing. In Europe, in particular France, location sound is often used as standard, as it gives films a more 'immediate' feeling. However in other countries, such as Italy, there is a long tradition of dubbing, even in interiors. There are advantages and disadvantages to both, but this ultimately comes down to preference.

Atmos

Right now, take a moment to listen to the atmosphere in the place where you are reading this. If you were recording a scene here, what sound would you include, which would you emphasise and which would you get rid of? The resultant recording would be the atmos of the setting.

Atmos refers to 'replacing the sound of the world'. The sound designer can decide exactly how aggressive a city should be, how isolated a warehouse should be, and how relaxing a countryside setting should be. It can tell you temperature, weather and the time of day. Within two or three seconds, the audience should know exactly where the scene is being set, and exactly what they should feel. Is it a memory? Is it terrifying? Is it mundane? However, it must be mixed so we hear the dialogue.

Foley 

By now you should be comfortable with what foley is! Just in case you’ve forgotten, it's the sounds of movement made by the actors. Footsteps, clothes rustling, water being poured, a door being opened… without these sounds the audience experiences a disconnect from the action, and the product can lack verisimilitude. Foley artists must consider exactly what clothes the actors are wearing and how thick the soles of their shoes are, as audiences expect every on screen source to make a different sound. While we're at it, it's important to note that this is utterly unrealistic. In day to day life, you probably are not able to hear the sounds of each other's footsteps.  Without these foleys, however, the film would lack the 'realism' that audiences expect from an audiovisual text. Foleys can bring the character out from the background. They are symbolic sounds, not real. Some directors, such as Ken Loach deliberately does not use post production sound such as foleys, but most other texts do, including documentaries. 

The sound mix

The balance between these three layers create the sound mix. Ultimately when making your own films, you want to create a soundscape which is engrossing, compelling and 'realistic'.  Adding music on top can completely change the experience again, so make sure you experiment with tones and levels!

The sound production workflow 

It is likely that post production sound and music is added after the film has been edited. However, as Sider has demonstrated, sound completely changes the meaning of a film! This leads to an issue. After additional sounds will be added, the film will have to be re-edited to fit the changes the soundtrack brings to it. This is because the soundtrack can completely change the ideology of the film. 

How to sidestep this issue? Sider recommends the composer and the sound designer are involved right from the start. Therefore, they can be involved in every creative decision. The film industry was based on Fordist industrial processes, particularly the automotive industry, with different people on different parts on the production line. This is why film production is often likened to a factory, with different workers working on different tasks, completely isolated from one another. While this makes creating films quickly and efficiently possible, it can lead to issues, for example the ideology being dampened as the film is passed from person to person. The solution? Some composers start composing after reading the script, right at the start of pre-production, creating a far more collaborative process. 

Final thoughts 

Sider asks the question: do modern films have too much music? Is it too didactic? Does it tell the audience too much, and stops them thinking for themselves? To work this out, he suggests this simple activity: watch a scene from a film you like. Listen to it with or without music. Listen to it without the image. Watch it 25 times, and consider exactly when sound and music are utilised. Exactly why was it used at this point? What effect does it have on the audience? Unravel the clip until you are aware of how its made. Would the scene be better without a musical score?

Finally, when making your own films, consider dynamics. The ear gets tired when listening to a certain volume or frequency. A loud sound will be louder when contrasted with a particularly quiet sound. Mix things up for maximum impact.

Thanks to Larry Sider for delivering the presentation that this article is based on. Check out the website for Sider's course at schoolofsound.co.uk