2015/16 Media productions

Just a quick announcement for those who don't know: you can find links to the Long Road Media Youtube channel, and with it links to the thriller openings and music videos you made in the links bar at the top right of this site.

Why not take a minute to remind yourself of the excellent work you created?

A2 Media revision sessions

Two revision sessions for the MS4 exam will be run on Monday 6th June. The sessions will most probably be on paragraph structure and applying examples. You can attend either (or, indeed, neither) session. Please email your teacher for any further information.

10:30 - 12:30 - Amanda - G9

13:00 - 15:00 - Michael - G9

Narrative - the key theories

This post is created using notes created by a class towards the start of this year. I cannot remember which class produced this, but if you recognise it, please let me know so I can credit you!

Because of the 'collaborative nature' of this post, the tone is a bit up and down. If anything needs clearing up, please let me know!

Propp's morphology of folklaw

A series of character archetypes that crop up again and again in a variety of narratives. Here are a few of the most important, and their characteristics:

Hero:

•       Most commonly the main character
•       Who gets the girl (princess)
•       Saves the day
•       Finds solution to the problem, caused most commonly by the villain

Princess:

•       Usually female
•       Damsel in distress stereotype
•       Is saved by the hero

Villain:

•       Usually has some deformity
•       Causes problem for other characters
•        male

False hero:

•       A reveal of ulterior motives is expected
•       Pretends to help the hero or to be the hero himself (often male)

Donor:

•       Helps the hero to begin his quest
•       Gives advice and tasks to complete

Barthes five narrative codes

A detailed description of all five of Barthe's codes can be found on this blog, here. Remember, the enigma code and the action code are possibly the most important.

Todorov's narrative triad

There are five steps and Todorov states that all narratives follow them. They are-

• Equilibrium: an often (but not always) happy start to the story where most characters are content. A state of balance. 
• Disruption: a problem (something  to disrupt the equilibrium, leading to the main conflict of the narrative)
• Realization: Everyone realizes the problem and chaos ensues.
• Attempt to repair: the characters attempt to repair the damage and restore the problem.
• Equilibrium again: the problem is resolved and normality can resume.

Restricted and Omniscient Narrative

Restricted

• When the narrative is filmed from the point of view of only one character making so we know more about the character.
• The spectator only experiences what the character experiences.
• Only knows as much as the character creating mystery and shock

Omniscient

• The narrative is  free to 'jump around' from character to character allowing the spectator to gain more information.
• Allows the spectator to have a wider, more privileged view of the narrative events.
• Knows more than the main character creating suspense. (Dramatic Irony)

Linear and Nonlinear Narratives

Linear: 

Linear narratives follow a set chronological order of events, starting at the beginning, transitioning to the middle and proceeding to the end of the story. These are predominantly the most common type of narrative used in Hollywood blockbusters.

Nonlinear: 

Nonlinear narratives, sometimes called disjointed/disrupted narrative, have plotlines that start in the middle of the action and jump around to different spaces and times. The events that take place in the narrative don’t follow a set chronological order, and often include parallel distinctive plotlines, dream immersions, or narrating another story inside the main plotline. Often used to mimic the structure and recall of human memory. Some such examples include Slumdog Millionaire, Trance and Blue Valentine.

Levi-Strauss and binary oppositions

A binary opposition is where two aspects represent the precise opposite of one another. Some broad examples of binary oppositions include

• light and dark
• hungry and full
• tired and fully awake
• city and wilderness

Theorists like Levi-Strauss suggested that we make sense of the world through what something isn't, rather than what it is. For example, we only know what the concept of day is, because we have something called night, and it is indeed very different from the day.

Within narratives, binary oppositions serve to create conflict.They can create a shortcut to audiences understanding the narrative. Films marketed towards children do this very well. For example, the Pixar film Brave instantly establishes princess Merida as being a binary opposition of her mother. Merida is scruffy, strong willed and adventurous, while her mother is properly dressed, lives by tradition and is very strict. Even young children can instantly tell that Merida is a rebel, through the binary opposition that has been created.

Here are a few more binary oppositions in Brave. Most of these involve princess Merida as one side of the binary. Think about how they create conflict, enigma, excitement or humour

• big and small 
• ugly and pretty
• tradition and progress
• wilderness and safety
• human and animal
• loud and quiet
• male and female
• old and young

Is Skyfall misogynistic?

While Skyfall was lauded by many critics for being a step forward in terms of representation, there are many who believe the precise opposite, that the film is misogynistic. Misogyny is a step beyond sexism, and refers to the active hatred of women (just for reference, the hatred of men is called misandry). This excellent blog post gives a detailed textual analysis on exactly how Skyfall presents a misogynistic ideology through its textual elements.

The arguments of this essay are presented as a chart below, where the role and outcome of every female character with a name in Skyfall is detailed.

Click to see in full size

It is essential to have a detailed point of view in your response to the MS4 exam. While this point of view should be personal to you, it is clear that you can make a powerful argument that Skyfall is not only sexist, but pushes the boundary from sexism to misogyny. The real A grade answer will then attempt to suggest why this is the case. Here are a few, very brief examples;

1. The representation confirms audiences expectations of the genre, both the action genre and the more specific 'James Bond genre'
2. The representation confirms and reinforces patriarchal hegemony, constructing a narrative where men are in charge, and women are too useless to do anything than be subservient to men
3. The representation is typical of the action film narrative, creating easy binary oppositions for the audience to decode, where women drive the narrative by being threatened, killed or simply messing things up

Questions for the other two films

What are the narrative functions of both male and female characters in The Selfish Giant and Brave? Do they challenge or subvert genre conventions? And is the representation of gender in these films typical, atypical, or in any way misogynistic?

MS4 past paper questions

There have been a few previous posts with past paper questions from previous years, but this post combines many of the questions set since the WJEC specification was updated in 2010 into one place. Remember, completing past paper questions is the best possible revision you can complete. I recommend choosing a question, revising it, before putting everything away and giving yourself the allotted 50 minutes to tackle it.

Also remember: you pick ONE question from section A, and TWO questions from section B, making sure to use a different industry (Film, TV or Music) in each.

Have fun!

June 2010

SECTION A: TEXT

A1 To what extent are your texts typical of their genre?

A2 Explore the different representations of either women or ethnicity in your chosen texts.


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1 How important is the industry to your selected industry? Refer to your chosen texts in your answer.

B2 How effectively is your selected industry regulated? Refer to your chosen texts in your answer.

B3 How successful have your chosen texts been for their industry?

B4 ‘Most media texts target a range of different audiences.’ How true is this for your chosen texts?

January 2011

SECTION A: TEXT

A1 Explore the key representations in your chosen texts.

A2 How do your chosen texts reinforce or challenge typical genre conventions?


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1 How have your chosen texts been constructed to appeal to their audiences?

B2 To what extent have your chosen texts been affected by regulation issues?

B3 With reference to your selected industry, explore the ways in which your chosen texts are marketed and/or promoted.

B4 What different pleasures do your chosen texts offer audiences?

June 2011

SECTION A: TEXT

A1 How stereotypical are the representations of gender in your chosen texts?

A2 How conventional is the narrative structure of your chosen texts?


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1 Explore the different ways in which audiences and/or users respond to your chosen texts.

B2 To what extent is the success of your chosen texts dependent on stars and/or celebrities?

B3 With reference to your selected industry, explore how far your chosen texts are global.

B4 Explore how your chosen texts use digital technology in their marketing.

January 2012

SECTION A: TEXT

A1 Explore the different representations of either men or age within your three main texts.

A2 How important are characters to the narrative of your three main texts?


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1 Assess the main advantages of the internet for your three main texts.

B2 With reference to your three main texts, discuss the key features of their distribution.

B3 Explore the different ways your three main texts attract their audiences.

B4 How global is the appeal of your three main texts?

June 2012

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. Explore the different ways in which people are represented in your three main texts.

A2. How typical are your three main texts of their genre?


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. Discuss the audience appeal of your three main texts.

B2. Explore the impact of regulation on your three main texts.

B3. How effectively were your three main texts marketed?

B4. ‘The main function of a media text is to entertain its audience.’ How true is this for your three main texts?

January 2013

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. To what extent are the key representations in your three main texts stereotypical? [30]

A2. Explore the genre conventions in your three main texts. [30]


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. To what extent are stars and/or celebrities important to the promotion of your three main texts? [30]

B2. Explore the different ways your three main texts target their audiences. [30]

B3. Explore the different ways audiences interact with your three main texts. [30]

B4. ‘Distribution is the key to success.’ How far do you agree? Refer to your three main texts in your answer.

June 2013

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. Explore the narrative structure of your three main texts.

A2. ‘Most texts today mix genres.’ How true is this of your three main texts?


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. What do texts offer audiences? Refer to your three main texts in your answer.

B2. How do your three main texts use digital technology?

B3. How do your three main texts position audiences?

B4. To what extent are your three main texts global?

January 2014

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. Explore how the key representations in your three main texts have been constructed. [30]

A2. Explore how narrative is constructed in your three main texts. [30]


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. Explore the use of digital technologies in your selected industry. Refer to your three main texts. [30]

B2. How is your chosen industry regulated? Refer to your three main texts. [30]

B3. To what extent do your three main texts appeal to different audiences? [30]

B4. ‘A global audience is important to media industries.’ Discuss this statement with reference to your three main texts.

June 2014

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. To what extent do your three main texts challenge genre conventions? [30]

A2. Explore the key gender representations in your three main texts. [30]


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. Discuss the marketing strategies used by your selected industry. Refer to your three main texts. [30]

B2. How important are high production values to your three main texts? [30]

B3. Explore the different ways audiences respond to your three main texts. [30]

B4. To what extent do your three main texts target a mainstream audience? [30]

June 2015

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. ‘All media representations are constructed.’ Discuss with reference to your three main texts. [30]

A2. ‘Media texts contain complex narratives.’ How true is this of your three main texts? [30]


SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE

B1. Explore the different audience appeal of your three main texts. [30]

B2. Discuss the importance of social media in the marketing and promotion of your three main texts. [30]

B3. To what extent do your three main texts target a global audience? [30]

B4. How important are digital technologies to the success of your three main texts? [30]

June 2016

SECTION A: TEXT

A1. ‘Media representations of people are often simplistic.’ How true is this of the representations of people in your three main texts? [30]

A2. ‘Narratives generally follow a linear structure.’ Discuss with reference to your three main texts. [30]

SECTION B: INDUSTRY AND AUDIENCE


B1. Discuss the different ways audiences are positioned by your three main texts. [30]

B2. All media texts are subject to regulation. How has regulation affected your three main texts?
[30]

B3. Explore the key factors which influence the production of your three main texts. [30]

B4. Discuss actual audience responses to your three main texts. [30]

Music industry key terms

DISTRIBUTION - the supply of media products to audiences

Distribution essentially refers to how a  media product gets into your hands... or your hard drive. For the music industry, there is a distinction between traditional formats, such as vinyl records, cassettes and CDs, and those formats that come under the umbrella of 'new media', for example digital downloads. Traditional methods of distribution for both major and independent record labels consists of securing contracts to sell a certain amount of CDs or LPs to either a physical or web based store. This can either be done directly, or through a specialist distributor. Distribution takes on an entirely different approach when done digitally. In this instance, albums or singles can be sold directly from the company or artist’s website. More often though, this task is designated to a specialist online reseller, such as iTunes.  On an independent level, artists can use hosting/streaming sites such as Soundcloud, Bandcamp and Myspace (!)

MARKETING - the process of preparing a media product for sale in a market

Selling an album is not as straightforward as putting it on iTunes and waiting for the money to role in. Advertising, identifying audiences, and the associated strategies involved with this all play a major part. Traditional methods of marketing may involve posters, magazines and newspaper campaigns. More recent developments in digital technology allow media organisations to directly market music to audiences, for example using social media. Kanye West's marketing of not only his music, but his celebrity on Twitter can only be described as aggressive...

CONVERGENCE - the 'coming together' of two previously separate industries

One of the biggest benefits of digital technologies (see below) is that previously separate media industries can now be 'combined'. 'Old media' can be characterised as being separate. You go to a cinema to watch a film. You buy a record to listen to music. You switch on the TV to watch a TV programme, and you have completely different expectations of what each experience will be. Digital technology has now blurred these lines. We can from a laptop computer access film, television, music, fiction, academic texts, and so on. Crucially, we can use this same laptop to make films and music. The fact that all of these functions can be completed through one device is an excellent example of media convergence. 

SYNERGY - the benefits of two media combining, for example a music video (film and music)

Synergy refers to two or more things working in perfect harmony. Some media industries work particularly well together. Music videos are a great example. Another example of synergy is tie-in products, such as videogames. In short, synergy refers to the benefits of convergence. 

CONGLOMERATION - The coming together of two or more corporations, for example Sony BMG

As with media products, media corporations are also subject to this 'coming together'. This is most often demonstrated through acquisitions, where one corporation buys a company, and mergers, where a company combines with another one to create a larger company. The music industry is particularly characterised by conglomeration. Over time the number of record labels has steadily decreased as they acquire and merge with one another, meaning that there are currently only three major music labels, each of which own a ridiculous amount of intellectual properties.

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES - digital, as opposed to analogue technology, for example digital television, mobile phones, computers and the internet

Digital technologies can be difficult to define, insofar as most technologies now are in some ways digital. Without wishing to get into too much detail, digital technologies are superior to traditional analogue technologies as far more information can be transferred far more quickly and efficiently. For example, using analogue TV signals, it was a struggle to even broadcast five TV channels in the UK. With digital technology, it has comparatively recently been possible to broadcast 100's of channels. Digital technologies can include anything involving the internet, mobile phones, computers, and any number of widely used devices.  

THE INTERNET - a method of connecting computer networks

The internet possibly needs no introduction. It has revolutionised how information can efficiently be distributed and shared between audiences around the world. The internet has matured greatly in the last 20 years. Previously only comparatively small files could be exchanged, but the introduction of broadband has allowed effective and efficient streaming of data, essentially allowing video and audio streaming services such as Youtube and Spotify respectively. 

STARS AND CELEBRITIES  - a 'glamourous, notorious' or otherwise exceptional individual within the public sphere 

Not every musical artist is a 'star'. It is very possible to be an extremely talented and respected musician , yet remain completely unknown to the vast majority of people. A star, therefore, requires a certain quality that helps them to stick out, be it a particularly over-the-top personality, fashion sense, or being associated with charitable work. Celebrity is perhaps one of the most important aspects to the success of major pop stars, arguably more so than distribution or even the music itself. Celebrity gives audiences a distinct personality to identify with, which helps their appreciation and affinity to the music itself. For example, Lady Gaga's fans call themselves 'little monsters', and emulate their hero's fashion sense by dressing up in DIY versions of her own iconic costumes. This is a particularly good example of how the uses and gratifications model can be taken beyond the usual 'information/entertainment' conclusion.

REGULATION - the rules and restrictions a media organisation must follow

Many industries have to follow strict rules and regulations. The British film industry is a good example of this. Every film released in the UK must receive an age certificate, accredited by the British Board of Film Certification (the BBFC). Each age certificate has strict boundaries. A very thorough description of what you can and cannot say or do in each certification bracket can be found here. Without an age certificate, a film cannot be legally exhibited (unless it is shown out of certificate, which often involves obtaining a licence, or screened informally, which is why schools can legally show 18 rated films to slightly younger Media students!), and it cannot be legally released on DVD (unless it is deemed to be of a purely educational context). Age certification is constantly argued over, and older films are often re-rated at a later date, depending on what contemporary society deems offensive or harmful.

Confused? It's understandable. The music industry, on the other hand is subject to almost no regulation. It is instead largely self regulated. The 'parental advisory' sticker is not at all legally binding. Music might be edited by radio or TV stations for content or length (often called a 'radio edit'), but this is up to the discretion of the broadcaster, and again is not legally binding. One regulation that the music industry DOES uphold is copyright law. This is the law you are breaking if you illegally torrent a new album. You have not stolen a physical product, but the intellectual property of the record label and the artist.

MUSIC PRODUCTION - the ways in which music is made

Traditionally, music was performed live. Throughout much of the 20th Century, music was recorded to analogue tape. Advances in technology allowed artists to record and record certain parts, essentially making for a 'flawless' performance'. Now the vast majority of production is completed digitally, allowing for much faster, easier, and arguably high quality production. Both Kanye West and Lady Gaga's music evidences 'high production values', and this contributes a great deal to their success. It is a key audience pleasure to listen to a quality product. Some people however favour a more lo-fi production, feeling it makes the music more authentic. 

Look out for a future post detailing what words exactly you should use when discussing music production. 

GLOBAL ISSUES - the issues that arise when a media text from one country is consumed by audiences from another country or culture

In the UK, the video to Lady Gaga's single Judas might come across as a little over the top, but it is unlikely to offend a sizable portion of the population. However, we cannot make this assumption about the entire world. The video, with it's heavy use of religious symbolism risks offending the more religiously conservative US, and this potentially for offense is even more so in predominantly Roman Catholic countries like Mexico and The Philippines. Predictably several catholic groups were offended by it. However, it could be argued that the publicity this backlash gave the song only increased its marketability. Global implications do not have to be related to controversy. Different countries tend to favour different genres and styles of production. For example, the harsh processed production and extremely chirpy nature of Japanese pop music means that very few Japanese artists achieve popularity outside of Japan and a few other Asian countries. 

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM - the imposition of one country's norms and values on to another country

Cultural imperialism is essentially the reason why American music (and film and TV) is so popular in the UK. Marxist scholars would argue that this is another example of hegemony. While we are not forced to listen to American music, the fact its popularity means we are likely to listen to it every day. Additionally, American style production values, songwriting techniques and vocal stylings are consequently influential enough to influence British artists. Think how many British artists sing with an American accent. Now consider how many American artists sing with a British accent. If we think about it like this, it is almost like the US has conquered the UK, not with guns and bombs, but with culture!

Definitions for this post are adapted from Dictionary of Media Studies (Penguin, 2007) and The Media Studies Book (Routledge, 2006)

The Selfish Giant and genre

A question that could come up in the A2 Media exam is 'how do your chosen texts use genre conventions?'. In order to answer this question it is essential to define genre, why it is important, and what issues can arise from its use, preferably in the introduction.

The Selfish Giant belongs to a very particular genre, and one that is defined by its dominant ideology.

Ideology

What is the dominant reading of The Selfish Giant? What are we supposed to feel after watching it? And what message or moral does this film have? Unlike many films, The Selfish Giant has a very clear ideological goal. It is designed to manipulate the audience into a certain point of view, and to raise awareness of people in desperate situations. This ideology is absolutely essential to the social realist genre, as it is one of its conventions

Generic paradigms of the social realist film

The Selfish Giant is an almost stereotypical social realist film. But what makes it a social realist film in particular?

Social Realism is an artistic movement that started in America in the 1930s. Originally taking the form of paintings, later films and other forms of media emerged that could be described as being affiliated with social realism. Social realist art often depicts working class characters as being noble or heroic.

Kes (Loach, 1969)

Watch the trailer to Kes, often considered to be the quintessential social realist film (and certainly one of the most popular)What generic paradigms do The Selfish Giant and Kes share? Make specific examples to visual and technical codes.


Watch any scene from The Selfish Giant that features Arbor, preferably one you have studied in class, and try to answer the following questions:

To what extent could it be argued that Arbor is “noble or heroic”?
To what extent can Arbor be argued to be working class?

While Arbor isn't a traditional hero in any sense of the word, his actions can be seen to be heroic. He's grafting to get himself, his mum, and his best friend out of poverty. While he may do this through breaking the law, he essentially has no alternative. In this sense, Arbor can be considered to be the underdog hero.

Documentary conventions

The Selfish Giant is not a documentary. It is a work of fiction. However there are several things that The Selfish Giant does in order to seem more like a documentary. Some documentary style conventions it uses include

• Shaky, handheld camera
• Simple, sparse narrative
• Less use of non-diegetic music
• Use of amatuer/untrained actors
• Naturalistic/rough performance
• Naturalistic settings (no film sets)
• Subject matter is far more relatable than something like Skyfall 
• Narrative focuses on real life struggle rather than entertainment value 

Director Clio Barnard gives insight into her casting procedure in this Guardian article:

Back in 2010, when Clio Barnard was shooting her first feature film, The Arbor, on the Buttershaw estate in Bradford, a young local lad caught her eye. "I first saw him when he was just 14, when I went to Buttershaw to do a workshop at a school," she recalls. "There was just something about him that was different from the other lads I met. He was a bit volatile, but enigmatic too and he really made his presence felt. When I went to Brafferton Arbor [the street on which The Arbor is set] for the first time, there he was, wearing his rigger boots and really dirty clothes. It was pure attitude, a kind of 'fuck you!' to anyone who dare call him a pikey.” 

So what do these naturalistic, documentary conventions give the film? In short, they give is verisimilitude and a sense of authenticity. Even though The Selfish Giant is a work of fiction, the same as Brave or Skyfall, using technical elements to intrigue, excite and position the audience within a dominant ideology, the use of documentary style conventions helps to connote to the audience that the film is 'real', raw, and set in a world that we recognise.

Socio-political context

'Socio-political context' refers to the social and political issues that affect a certain group of people at a certain time. Most critics would argue that films are a product of the time they are made. Many reviews of the film were keen to point out the post-Thatcher socio-political context of the film, and that the film could be read as a criticism of Margaret Thatcher's political policies.

Who was Margaret Thatcher? This BBC article gives a detailed rundown on her policies. In short, Thatcher believed in entrepreneurialism over state handouts. If an individual was poor, it was their own fault, and they could solve this problem through hard work. These two quotes from Thatcher elaborate on this principle:

“I think we've been through a period where too many people have been given to understand that if they have a problem, it's the government's job to cope with it. 'I have a problem, I'll get a grant.' 'I'm homeless, the government must house me.' They're casting their problem on society...”

"I do not know anyone who has got to the top without hard work. That is the recipe. It will not always get you to the top, but should get you pretty near." 

So how can we apply Thatcherite ideology to The Selfish Giant? The entire film is about fighting against adversity, and finding work under difficult standards. Both Kitten and Arbor are arguably entrepreneurs. The issue here is that because they've been abandoned by the government, they are forced to break the law. So while in many ways they are shining examples of Thatcherite entrepreneurs, by committing illegal activities, the film can be seen as a criticism of these policies.

Conclusions

As a social realist film, The Selfish Giant eschews entertainment for hard truths, and presents flawed characters and a potentially unsatisfying narrative. This is because the film has a clear ideological goal, to change the minds of its audience, and to educate the middle-class target audience on the hardships endured by the working class in the North of England.

Music industry: is vinyl more important than Youtube?

While sites like Youtube and Spotify allow artists to attract enormous amounts of fans, clocking up potential millions of listens, there has been some controversy regarding how much money this actually generates for the artists. If we factor in contemporary debates regarding music piracy, then the revenue from digital methods of distribution is potentially very small indeed. Even 'dead' formats such as vinyl records are potentially more valuable than these new media.

This Guardian article suggests that digital distribution may be yielding surprisingly little money for artists working in the music industry. This would be an excellent example for questions regarding the importance of distribution, marketing, digital media and the internet. Perhaps you would like to argue the internet is really not that important anymore!

Remember; it is essential to conduct your own wider reading in Media Studies. As a bare minimum, you should be consulting several online news sources every day. With something like the music industry, you could potentially find a grand changing article the day before the exam!

Music industry 'cheat sheet'

The MS4 exam appears scary, because technically any question could come up. You will need to be resourceful when applying your own knowledge of the text and media theories, as well as your own argument and point of view. While it cannot be guaranteed what will come up, it must be said that over the years the same key words crop up time and time again. Here are all the industry related key words from the last five or so years, and the kind of things you should be talking about when applying  the music industry to them.

Note- this 'cheat sheet' assumes you will be answering an 'industry' question with the 'music industry' examples, ie Kanye West, Lady Gaga, and your own chosen artist. You could, of course, answer an audience question instead.

“Digital technology”

• Recording
• techniques
• Websites
• Videos
• Social networking
• Youtube
• itunes, spotify etc
• Live performances
• Production techniques.
• Distribution.
• Use of social media –twitter etc.
• Marketing – via website, youtube,
• Listening formats

“Marketing”

• Band/performer websites
• exposure – magazines, celebrity endorsement etc
• fan sites
• music press articles
• social networking sites
• viral campaigns
• iTunes etc.

“Distribution”

• Financial – ownership, budget, etc
• Industry – size, scope
• Placement, marketing strategies
• Internet.

Distribution may be interpreted widely here and discussions on performances, videos and music releases are all valid. Other factors may include star person and music genre.

In general, I would advise arguing that distribution is not as essential as celebrity. Instead emphasise that physical sales are simply not as important anymore, and discuss the decline in CD sales.

“Advantages of the internet”

• Internet develops audience engagement (e.g., through points noted below)
• Sites directly linked to the selected texts e.g. band websites, label websites,
• newspaper/magazine on-line
• Blogs
• Twitter (ultimate in uses and gratification!)
• Use of YouTube
• Social networking sites e.g. MySpace, Facebook, Bebo (lol), etc.

“Stars and celebs”

• Clearly important !
• Websites (official)
• Fan sites and fan fiction
• forums
• Videos
• Social networking
• Chat shows
• Magazines

“Regulation”

• Largely self-regulated
• Legal constraints in areas of copyright, licensing, downloading
• New threats such as peer to peer and torrent sites
• Parental advisory stickers
• Radio edits
• Censorship

Sample essay

Michael wrote this response to the text question during the A2 mock exam. His commentary below the essay shows how he could have improved it.

Explore the key gender representations in your three main texts

In contemporary cinema, women are consistently represented as being subservient to male characters and consistently represented as being less important than men. This is encoded within texts on many levels, from the use of cinematography, to the very screen time that women occupy. I shall be exploring Skyfall, a popular entry in the long running Bond franchise, directed by Sam Mendes, Chloe Barnard’s The Selfish Giant, in many ways a wholly typical social realist film, and Brave, a recent Pixar animated action adventure film that in some ways breaks the conventions of the traditional Disney fairytale staple. Throughout this essay I shall argue that women are consistently represented as being subservient to male characters, and constricted by patriarchal hegemony.

Skyfall makes frequent and stereotypical use of Proppian character roles in order to create meaning for the audience. Within the narrative, Bond takes the role of the active protagonist, and the ‘Bond Girl’ Moneypenny the helpless and passive princess. This is best illustrated with an early scene where Bond and Moneypenny are in pursuit of an adversary. Moneypenny behind the wheel, Bond casually demeans Moneypenny’s every mistake with quips such as ‘didn’t need that wing-mirror?’ Immediately after, in a dramatic and windswept scene, Moneypenny is forced to take a decisive shot. The use of close up signifies her frustration, but also inexperience. There is a stark binary opposition between the timid girl and the gun. When she inevitably shoots bond by mistake, the moment is emphasized through the sudden absence of non-diegetic music. Her failure is both inevitable and confirms stereotypes (traditional) of women being subservient and hapless. This binary opposition between the competent Bond and the hapless Moneypenny reinforces the reading that women are constructed as being subservient to men.

Skyfall also makes the classic assumption that the gaze of the audience is both male and resolutely heterosexual. Women are presented solely for the purpose of the pleasure of the male heterosexual audience. When Severine, another Bond girl is bound to a rock and threatened with a gun, the audience is positioned in a predatory and threatening POV shot. The mise en scene of the ropes binding Severine is clearly sexualized and even fetishistic. Her makeup is symbolically smeared yet still largely intact. She remains conventionally attractive to the assumed audience. In this sense, Mulvey’s notion of the male gaze is wholly confirmed, and Severine, herself a tragic character, used by Silva as a tool of men in the sex trade, is reduced to a sexual object, and then killed when she serves no further purpose. In this sense, the representation of women in Skyfall is not only negative, but arguably damaging and misogynistic.

The Selfish Giant has very few female characters, with instead male characters taking the brunt of the negative stereotypes. One negative male stereotype is that of the youth hoodlum. Arbor, a young and impoverished boy, steals, lies, and grafts in order to get by. While it could be argued that his representation is heroic, by only seeing this one aspect of his character, we are forced to see him as a crude stereotype. In the classroom scene, Arbor confronts his teacher, telling him to ‘fuck off’ before running out of the classroom laughing. We can use Dyer’s writing on stereotypes to argue that this sort of representation can be harmful to the perception of opinion of young men in general. The mise en scene of Arbor’s appearance is always shabby, deprived and somewhat degenerate, and his actions throughout the film remain opportunistic, with only one brief moment of redemption at the conclusion. In this sense, Selfish Giant presents a very narrow and potentially damaging view of gender.

The focus on male characters in The Selfish Giant is largely to the exclusion of female characters. The only real sympathetic female character in The Selfish giant is Arbor’s mother. In one scene, after having the windows of her house smashed by a drug dealer (typical of this setting and other paradigmatic features of the social realist film), Arbor hugs his mother on the sofa. An intimate close up is used to position the viewer in a scene of almost voyeuristic warmth and human contact. However, this scene emphasises the dominance of men over women in a patriarchal and hegemonic society. Despite being an adult Arbor’s mother is helpless after her partner left her, and must instead rely on Arbor for a surrogate husband. This once more presents the representation of gender as being unequal and troubling. However, this could largely be for the fact that, as a social realist film, The Selfish Giant is desperate to convey an ideological stance, and in doing so must use stereotypes in order to make its message of anti-austerity and state inflicted poverty stick. However, by doing so at the expense of developing its female characters, it presents an unequal view of gender roles.

The final film I will be discussing is Pixar’s Brave. Brave is the first film here to actively reject the domination of women through patriarchal hegemony, though there is a definite patriarchy in place. In a character defining scene, Princess Merida challenges gender norms by tearing her dress and adopting the gender and action codes of a man when shooting an offensive weapon at targets, stunning the male audience in a series of dumbfounded close-up reaction shots. The tearing of the dress is very much symbolic. It reflects the agency of Merida to challenge and destroy the patriarchy. (In an earlier conversation, Merida’s mother convinces that the dress is supposed to be too tight, connoting the restrictions placed on women in every day society).  Throughout the film, Merida rejects stereotypical representations of women. Her hair is wild and unkempt, her face not conventionally attractive, and she rejects costume codes that would make her more conventionally sexually attractive on the basis that it would get in the way of the archery. In this sense, Brave rejects dominant ideological notions regarding the representation of women.

However, it is important to acknowledge that every representation used by a producer is for potential commercial gain. In Brave, Merida may take on some of the conventions of the action hero (the protagonist of the action adventure is usually a man rescuing women, in this case it is a young girl rescuing her own mother). However, she is still a princess, and easily identifiable as such for the young, female target audience. The only way in which she is able to accomplish these things is through her privilege. When making the film, the director rejected one possible scenario where Merida was the Blacksmith’s daughter, on the basis that it only works if she is a princess. By identifying Merida as a princess, this reinforces not only gender stereotypes, but also stereotypes surrounding class too, suggesting and reinforcing ideas of patriarchal and political hegemony. In the final scene, Merida, makes a concession, agreeing to still be princess, but on her terms. The optimistic non-diegetic music and enthusiastic high key lighting that accompanies this scene symbolizes that this is a great triumph for Merida, though she is, in fact, still forced to be a princess, and still bound by tradition.

All three films are very conservative in their portrayal of gender, with men as well as women being subject to this conservatism. In Skyfall, the Butler Kincaid, when dutifully handing Bond a knife, announces that ‘sometimes the old ways are the best’ The close up of his knowing nod is clearly symbolic of their power and agency the knife gives Bond. It is a masculine weapon, (even symbolically phallic), and connotes that while women appear, men are forced to make the action. In Brave too, there is a reoccurring theme of the old ways. The Billy Connolly voiced king (himself another old white man) announces to Merida that she must do as he says, because it is the old way. While Merida’s reaction presented in her frustrated expression in the resulting close up shot, there is still an expectation that Merida fall in line and follow the will of male characters.

All three films also present a very clear binary opposition between gender. In The selfish Giant, Kitten’s secretary (perhaps wife/girlfriend, she is never considered important enough to be elaborated on) works as a secretary while he works out front. His considerable physical presence distances himself from the few female characters; he keeps order through living up to male aggressive stereotypes while his secretary takes a passive role. The mise en scene of his costume is dirty, rugged, and practical, the precise opposite of the female characters in this film. Likewise in Skyfall, many binary oppositions are made between genders. As Bond shaves (itself a masculine act) after emotionlessly killing two nameless Chinese henchmen, Bond is walked in on by Moneypenny, who offers to shave him. The scene connotes sexuality. The lingering close ups of Moneypenny’s expression reinforce the notion that women should be subservient to men, where they should enjoy taking a submissive role. While Skyfall is often mistakenly referred to as a step forward in gender representation, the consistent incompetence, objectification and fetishisation of the female characters presents a terrible binary to the subjective, powerful and resolutely active male representations.

All media texts use representation to further their own needs and these three texts are no different. They represent men as being consistently strong and women as being consistently the object of male supremacy in order to reinforce societal notions of gender binaries. Skyfall does so to titillate and arouse the assumed conservative heterosexual male audience. The Selfish Giant presents negative stereotypes of (especially young) male characters, but simultaneously underrepresents female characters to the point where they are almost entirely absent. Finally, Brave, while making nods to a girl overthrowing the patriarchy, still ends with her accepting patriarchal hegemony, continuing the ‘princess fantasy’ for millions of young girls everywhere. For these reasons, I believe the representation of gender to be unbalanced in order to reinforce the dominant ideology and commonly held stereotypes.

Commentary

• Visual codes and technical codes should really have been emphasised in certain paragraphs. From writing this, I completely understand how difficult it is to include everything in just 50 minutes!

• I forgot the director of Brave's name. Your essay will definitely look more sophisticated with it! (Brave was directed by Mark Andrews and Brenda Chapman, by the way)

• I'm a big fan of The Selfish Giant, but I ended up laying into it in a big way. This is because examiners love to see a definite point of view. So while I do not really believe that The Selfish Giant is in any way a sexist film, I used the key scenes to prove that it is. Skyfall on the other hand...

• I focussed on the male gaze and patriarchal hegemony too much. I should have talked more about how these representations were constructed and why

• After writing the six paragraphs, I still had some time left, so I came back and included two more paragraphs. I am pleased I did this, as I was able to talk about 'old' masculinity and then another paragraph on gender hierarchies. It took 53 minutes in total, slightly over the 'perfect' 50 minutes but still about right.

• However, those last two paragraphs do feel a little tacked on. Why did I write "It is a masculine weapon, (even symbolically phallic)"? I must have been feeling the pressure... 

• I could have included Ariel Levy's female chauvinist pigs theory, and Richard Dyer's star theory to elaborate on some of my points

• I feel like I covered how the representations were typical of their respective genres, but I could have pushed this further

Audience response - The Hunt (2015)

The DVD cover for The Hunt suggests many pleasures that are available to the audience

Broadly, there are two types of audience question that can come up in the MS4 exam. (Incidentally this analysis could also be applied as a case study to the audience question for the AS/MS1 exam).

1. How do producers target audiences, or
2. How do audiences respond to media texts.

The wording can be a little different, but this is roughly what will come up in the exam.

It's essential to have key scenes in your head before taking the exam, and to make explicit reference to visual codes, technical codes, audio codes, narrative and genre as appropriate. We're going to look at how to use a scene from The Hunt (episode one) as a key scene for an audience question.

Key scene - The Hunt (2005, episode one) - 'African hunting dogs hunt wildebeest' (about 12 minutes into episode one)

How does the producer position audiences in this scene?

• Initial bird's eye establishing shot of the African plains emphasises an exotic and even alien world the audience are likely to be completely unfamiliar with. However, straight away...

• Use of tracking shots follows dogs as they both hunt and play. Tracking shot is at eye level, allowing audience to identify with the animals, even connotating their equality. 

• Close ups of dogs 'smiling' faces, which constructs the animals as being happy, or even more human-like

• Use of mid-shot of dog pack, emphasising the fact they are a family, eliciting sympathy and identification from the audience 

• Use of language in the voice-over anchors the audience to feel sympathy for the dogs. "the mother decides" - Use of the word 'mother' allows audiences to identify with different character roles

• Use of language - Attenborough refers to the animals not as 'African hunting dogs' but simply "dogs", allowing audiences to easily identify with the dogs and even see them as being 'domestic'.

• Use of exciting narrative devices. Voiceover explains that a few dogs have been "split off" from the pack, suggesting a disruption of the equilibrium. Audience forced to care about the dogs.

• Voiceover suggests a binary opposition between the dogs and the wildebeest. "The wildebeest are big and strong, but the dogs have stamina". The binary emphasises how different these two 'characters' are, forcing use to root for the hunting dogs. 

• Dramatic non-diegetic soundtrack - anchors audience to the conclusion that this is a dramatic, life changing scene. Use of african drums in the sound mix emphasises the exoticsism of the situation. 

How can this scene appeal to the audience?

• Bird's eye establishing shot emphasises an exotic land. Audiences can use for escapism. 

• Text uses many of the conventions of the nature documentary. Use of voiceover, exotic setting, exotic animals and pretense of information. Audiences can take pleasure at identifying these similarities, and differences in genre conventions. Two key differences include the emphasis on both the 'hunter' and the 'hunted', and the extensive use of super slow motion photography. In these two ways, the clip may challenge audience expectation.

• Super slow motion photography, extremely high definition resolution accomplished through extremely high end equipment. The sheer quality of The Hunt is a major point of audience appeal!

• The synergy of the fast paced editing, cross-cutting between different packs, and the varied cinematography, creating montages of close-ups, mid-shots and long-shots, creates an exciting scene, arguably closer to the action genre than the nature documentary genre. This allows completely different audiences to take pleasure form the text. 

• Polysemic readings -  audiences can focus on the educational aspects of the scene, or instead can take pleasure from the drama created by the cinematography and narrative codes. An audience could even choose to mute the soundtrack and to have the footage on in the background. Remember: there is no limit to uses and gratifications!

• Celebrity - David Attenborough's voice is a major appeal for audiences. Older audiences will identify with his celebrity, remembering other programmes he has narrated and taking pleasure from trusting this well recognised voice. Younger audiences could take pleasure from the authority of an older voice, perhaps seeing him as a 'granddad' figure

This is just one scene, but we can see how we can address both producer positioning and audience appeal. Without key scenes, complete with visual and technical codes, you will be making life hard for yourself. Perhaps the best way to revise is to sit down, to pick out familiar key scenes, and to dissect them with a question in front of you.

Thanks to R block and S block A2 Media for your assistance in constructing this analysis!

Good luck!

To all those sitting the MS1 Media exam, both from Long Road and beyond, we wish you the best of luck.

Here are some last minute tips:

Try not to do too much on your final night
Go to bed at a reasonable time
Eat some breakfast
Get in early (aim to get in at 08:00. worst comes to the worst, you can revise in the library)
Avoid people you know are going to distract you or put you in a bad mood
Check to see what room you are in when you get in (you are spread across several rooms)

We will be stationed outside your exam rooms to provide encouragement. See you tomorrow!

Theory 'cheat sheet' - genre, narrative, representation

This 'cheat sheet' briefly covers some of the most important concepts for writing about genre, narrative and representation. This has been created in mind for the A2 Media/MS4 'text' question (Skyfall, The Selfish Giant and Brave), but this is still useful for the AS Media/MS1 questions on 'textual analysis' and 'representation'.

You might not have covered every theory/concept (especially if you are AS), but don't worry. It's not a definitive list, more a prompt for revision!

Click the image to see full size.

Thank you to Amanda for creating this resource! If you have any questions, please talk to your Media teacher.